Differences in pedalling technique between road cyclists of different competitive levels

The purpose of this study was to compare the pedalling technique in road cyclists of different competitive levels. Eleven professional, thirteen elite and fourteen club cyclists were assessed at the beginning of their competition season. Cyclists’ anthropometric characteristics and bike measurements were recorded. Three sets of pedalling (200, 250 and 300 W) on a cycle ergometer that simulated their habitual cycling posture were performed at a constant cadence (~90 rpm), while kinetic and kinematic variables were registered. The results showed no differences on the main anthropometric variables and bike measurements. Professional cyclists obtained higher positive impulse proportion (1.5–3.3% and P < 0.05), mainly due to a lower resistive torque during the upstroke (15.4–28.7% and P < 0.05). They also showed a higher ankle range of movement (ROM, 1.1–4.0° and P < 0.05). Significant correlations (P < 0.05) were found between the cyclists’ body mass and the kinetic variables of pedalling: positive impulse proportion (r = ?0.59 to ?0.61), minimum (r = ?0.59 to ?0.63) and maximum torques (r = 0.35–0.47). In conclusion, professional cyclists had better pedalling technique than elite and club cyclists, because they opted for enhancing pulling force at the recovery phase to sustain the same power output. This technique depended on cycling experience and level of expertise.     

10 weeks of heavy strength training improves performance-related measurements in elite cyclists

ABSTRACT

Elite cyclists have often a limited period of time available during their short preparation phase to focus on development of maximal strength; therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of 10-week heavy strength training on lean lower-body mass, leg strength, determinants of cycling performance and cycling performance in elite cyclists. Twelve cyclists performed heavy strength training and normal endurance training (E&S) while 8 other cyclists performed normal endurance training only (E). Following the intervention period E&S had a larger increase in maximal isometric half squat, mean power output during a 30-s Wingate sprint (P < 0.05) and a tendency towards larger improvement in power output at 4 mmol ? L^?1 [la^?] than E (P = 0.068). There were no significant difference between E&S and E in changes in 40-min all-out trial (4 ± 6% vs. ?1 ± 6%, respectively, P = 0.13). These beneficial effects may encourage elite cyclists to perform heavy strength training and the short period of only 10 weeks should make it executable even in the compressed training and competition schedule of elite cyclists.     

The association of bike fitting with injury,comfort, and pain during cycling: An international retrospective survey

Although bike fitting is recommended to help reduce injury risk, little empirical evidence exists to indicate an association between bike fitting and injury incidence. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of bike fitting on self-reported injury, comfort, and pain while cycling from a worldwide survey of cyclists. A total of 849 cyclists completed an online questionnaire between February and October 2016. Questionnaire collected data on respondent demographics, cycling profile, bike fitting, comfort and pain while cycling, and injury history. The main predictor variable was bike fitting (yes, by the respondent, i.e. user bike fitting; yes, by a professional service; or no). Covariates included demographic and cycling profile characteristics. Logistic regression models estimated the odds of injury within the last 12 months, reporting a comfortable body posture while cycling, and not reporting pain while cycling. Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were reported. User bike fitting was associated with increased odds of reporting a comfortable posture (OR?=?2.28, 95%CI: 1.06, 4.68). User (OR?=?2.35; 95%CI: 1.48, 3.84) and professional bike fitting (OR?=?2.35; 95%CI: 1.42, 3.98) were both associated with increased odds of not reporting pain while cycling. No associations were found between bike fitting and injury within the last 12 months. In conclusion, we found an association between bike fitting and reported comfort and pain while cycling. We recommend integrating bike fitting into cycling maintenance. However, further studies with longer follow-up are necessary to determine the presence of an association between bike fitting and injury.     

Riding against the wind: a review of competition cycling aerodynamics

Aerodynamics has such a profound impact on cycling performance at the elite level that it has infiltrated almost every aspect of the sport from riding position and styles, equipment design and selection, race tactics and training regimes, governing rules and regulations to even the design of new velodromes. This paper presents a review of the aspects of aerodynamics that are critical to understanding flows around cyclists under racing conditions, and the methods used to evaluate and improve aerodynamic performance at the elite level. The fundamental flow physics of bluff body aerodynamics and the mechanisms by which the aerodynamic forces are imparted on cyclists are described. Both experimental and numerical techniques used to investigate cycling aerodynamic performance and the constraints on implementing aerodynamic saving measures at the elite level are also discussed. The review reveals that the nature of cycling flow fields are complex and multi-faceted as a result of the highly three-dimensional and variable geometry of the human form, the unsteady racing environment flow field, and the non-linear interactions that are inherent to all cycling flows. Current findings in this field have and will continue to evolve the sport of elite cycling while also posing a multitude of potentially fruitful areas of research for further gains in cycling performance.     

Physiological and biomechanical responses between seated and standing positions during distance‑based uphill time trials in elite cyclists

Cyclists regularly change from a seated to a standing position when the gradient increases during uphill cycling. The aim of this study was to analyse the physiological and biomechanical responses between seated and standing positions during distance-based uphill time trials in elite cyclists. Thirteen elite cyclists completed two testing sessions that included an incremental-specific cycling test on a cycle ergometer to determine VO_2max and three distance-based uphill time trials in the field to determine physiological and biomechanical variables. The change from seated to standing position did not influence physiological variables. However, power output was increased by 12.6% in standing position when compared with seated position, whereas speed was similar between the two positions. That involved a significant increase in mechanical cost and tangential force (F_tang) on the pedal (+19% and +22.4%, respectively) and a decrease (?8%) in the pedalling cadence. Additionally, cyclists spent 22.4% of their time in the standing position during the climbing time trials. Our findings showed that cyclists alternated between seated and standing positions in order to maintain a constant speed by adjusting the balance between pedalling cadence and F_tang.     

Bone mineral density and lean mass asymmetries are greater in cyclists than non-cyclists

ABSTRACT

Cyclists may be at greater risk of developing asymmetrical force and motion patterns than other ground-based athletes. However, functional asymmetries during cycling tend to be highly variable, making them difficult to assess. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) measurements of areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and lean mass (LM) in the lower limbs may be a more sensitive and consistent method to identify asymmetries in cyclists. The goal of this study was to determine if competitive cyclists have greater levels of asymmetries in the lower body compared to non-cyclists using DXA. A secondary aim was to determine if aBMD and LM asymmetries change over the road cycling season. 17 competitive cyclists and 21 non-cyclist, healthy controls underwent DXA scans. Lower-body asymmetries were greater in cyclists compared to non-cyclists in aBMD and LM for all lower limb segments. However, these asymmetries did not tend to consistently favour a particular side, except for the pelvis having more LM on the dominant side. The were no longitudinal changes in aBMD or LM in the cyclists. Asymmetry analysis via DXA provides evidence that although functional asymmetries during cycling are variable, cyclists have increased lower body LM and aBMD asymmetries compared to non-cyclists.     

A mathematical model for simulating cycling: applied to track cycling

A review of existing mathematical models for velodrome cycling suggests that cyclists and cycling coaches could benefit from an improved simulation tool. A continuous mathematical model for cycling has been developed that includes calculated slip and steering angles and, therefore, allows for resulting variation in rolling resistance. The model focuses on aspects that are particular, but not unique, to velodrome cycling but could be used for any cycling event. Validation of the model is provided by power meter, wheel speed and timing data obtained from two different studies and eight different athletes. The model is shown to predict the lap by lap performance of six elite female athletes to an average accuracy of 0.36% and the finishing times of two elite athletes competing in a 3-km individual pursuit track cycling event to an average accuracy of 0.20%. Possible reasons for these errors are presented. The impact of speed on steering input is discussed as an example application of the model.     

Hydration status affects mood state and pain sensation during ultra-endurance cycling

Laboratory-based studies indicate mild dehydration adversely affects mood. Although ultra-endurance events often result in mild to moderate dehydration, little research has evaluated whether the relationship between hydration status and mood state also exists in these arduous events. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate how hydration status affected mood state and perceptual measures during a 161 km ultra-endurance cycling event. One hundred and nineteen cyclists (103 males, 16 females; age = 46 ± 9 years; height = 175.4 ± 17.9 cm; mass = 82.8 ± 16.3 kg) from the 2011 and 2013 Hotter’N Hell events participated. Perceived exertion, Thermal, Thirst, and Pain sensations, Brunel Profile of Mood States, and urine specific gravity (USG) were measured pre- (~1 h before), mid- (~97 km), and post-ride. Participants were classified at each time point as dehydrated (USG ≥ 1.022) or euhydrated (USG ≤ 1.018). Independent of time point, dehydrated participants (USG = 1.027 ± 0.004) had decreased Vigour and increased Fatigue, Pain, Thirst, and Thermal sensations compared to euhydrated participants (USG = 1.012 ± 0.004; all P < 0.01). USG significantly correlated with Fatigue (r = 0.36), Vigour (r = ?0.27), Thirst (r = 0.15), and Pain (r = 0.22; all P < 0.05). In conclusion, dehydrated participants had greater Fatigue and Pain than euhydrated participants. These findings indicate dehydration may adversely affect mood state and perceptual ratings during ultra-endurance cycling.     

Effect of bike-fit in the perception of comfort,fatigue and pain

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to assess the influence of different bike positions on the perception of fatigue, pain and comfort. Twenty cyclists underwent three tests that involved cycling for 45 min at their individual 50% peak aerobic power output while adopting different positions on the bike. Participants performed the cycling tests adopting three positions defined by two parameters (knee flexion angle [20°, 30°, 40°] and trunk flexion angle [35°, 45°, 55°]) in random order. Angles were measured using a 2D motion analysis system during cycling and applying Fonda’s correction factor. Perceptions of comfort, fatigue and pain were reported before the end of each test. The combination of 40° knee flexion and 35° trunk flexion was perceived as the most uncomfortable position. Moreover, greater knee flexion had a negative effect on trunk comfort, accompanied by greater levels of fatigue and pain perception in the anterior part of the thigh and knee. In conclusion, cyclists perceived the most comfortable position to be when the saddle height was within the recommended knee angle (30° calculated from the offset position or 40 ± 4.0° of absolute value). Upright trunk was found to be the most comfortable position for recreational cyclists, where aerodynamics is not so important. Cyclists’ bike perceptions should be taken into account when it comes to choosing the most beneficial position, since this can play a role in injury prevention and enhance cycling performance.     

The Legacy of Festina: Patterns of Drug Use in European Cycling Since 1998

Since the Tour de France doping scandal of 1998 there has been a concerted effort to ‘clean up’ cycling. But has this meant a change in attitude regarding the use of doping within the professional cycling community? In order to compare norms and values of today's elite cyclist with those of earlier periods, three historical phases in modern cycling are identified, and an account of professional cyclists’ preparations is given for each phase. Because of the different attitudes to doping found between riders of different categories, the article considers it necessary to reject the commonly held view that elite cyclists all take part in the same deviant subculture.     

Exercise and inflammation in coronary artery disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials

ABSTRACT

Current evidence suggests that chronic inflammation contributes to the development of coronary artery disease (CAD). Interestingly, exercise may constitute a method of reducing inflammation in this patient population. As such, this systematic review and meta-analysis examined the evidence generated by randomised studies that investigated the effect of exercise on inflammatory biomarkers in CAD. Literature was sought from various sources. Outcomes were pooled in a random-effects model to calculate standardised mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Twenty-five studies were reviewed; post-intervention C-reactive protein (SMD: ?0.55 (95% CI: ?0.93, ?0.16), P = 0.005), fibrinogen (SMD: ?0.52 (95% CI: ?0.74, ?0.29, P = <0.00001)), and von Willebrand factor (SMD: ?1.57 (95% CI: ?2.23, ?0.92), P = <0.00001) values were significantly lower in exercise groups compared to controls. In addition, qualitative analyses identified evidence that supports a beneficial effect of exercise on these acute-phase reactants. However, the impact of exercise on anti–inflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules, and chemokines is equivocal, which may be attributed to a paucity of research. Nevertheless, the findings of this review suggest that exercise induces an anti–inflammatory effect in CAD patients. Although, the quality of evidence needs to be improved by further randomised studies with high methodological qualities and large sample sizes.     

Self-Narrative Profiles of Elite Athletes and Comparisons on Psychological Well-Being

Further research is needed on factors related to the emotional health of elite athletes. Previous research has linked self-narratives of people or their narrative identities to their psychological well-being. However, no study has yet examined self-narratives among elite athletes. Purpose: This study examined whether specific profiles or narrative identities of athletes emerge through multiple self-narrative indicators; these profiles were compared on measures of psychological well-being (e.g., depression, anxiety, postfailure shame levels, and life satisfaction). Method: Self-report data were collected from a sample of elite athletes (n = 99, Mdn age = 22 years, 52% male, 53% individual sports) competing at a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1, professional, or Olympic level. Results: Latent profile analysis revealed 3 profile types that significantly differed on measures of psychological well-being. Athletes with a performance-based narrative identity (high perfectionism, fear of failure, and contingent self-worth) demonstrated the highest levels of psychological disruptions (highest levels of depression, anxiety, and shame; lowest levels of life satisfaction), whereas a purpose-based narrative identity (high purpose, global self-worth, positive view of self after sport) was associated with the highest level of psychological well-being (lowest levels of depression, anxiety, and shame; highest levels of life satisfaction). Athletes in the mixed-type profile class reported better psychological well-being compared with the performance-based profile class but not the purpose-based profile class. Conclusions: Our findings provide initial evidence that particular self-narrative profiles of elite athletes contribute to their own psychological well-being in a significant way. Possible implications for practitioners are also discussed.     

Risk and protective factors for mental health in elite athletes: a scoping review

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of studies concerning the mental health (MH) of elite athletes and to provide a methodological, conceptual, and applied overview of factors affecting elite athletes’ MH. A total of nine reviews and 43 empirical studies were evaluated and are reported in three sections: sample characteristics, research design, and factors affecting elite athletes’ MH. These factors were grouped into risk and protective factors and divided into a personal and sport-environmental domain. The studies used quantitative (84%), qualitative (11%), and mixed-method (5%) designs and examined a wide range of sports in different countries. Our review shows that researchers have predominantly examined the prevalence of athletes’ mental ill-health (e.g. depression) and the related factors compromising MH. Potential protective factors such as the feeling of autonomy, positive relations in sport and private life, and adequate recovery were highlighted in the qualitative studies. The discussion appraises the findings through a critical lens, focuses on the current state of the research area and the MH definition, limitations, suggested practical implications (e.g. to provide MH literacy to both athletes and coaches), and future research directions (e.g. examining environments that foster elite athletes’ MH).     

A systematic review of school-based interventions targeting physical activity and sedentary behaviour among older adolescents

Lack of physical activity (PA) and high levels of sedentary behaviour (SB) have been associated with health problems. This systematic review evaluates the effectiveness of school-based interventions to increase PA and decrease SB among 15–19-year-old adolescents, and examines whether intervention characteristics (intervention length, delivery mode and intervention provider) and intervention content (i.e. behaviour change techniques, BCTs) are related to intervention effectiveness. A systematic search of randomised or cluster randomised controlled trials with outcome measures of PA and/or SB rendered 10 results. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Intervention content was coded using Behaviour Change Technique Taxonomy v1. Seven out of 10 studies reported significant increases in PA. Effects were generally small and short-term (Cohen's d ranged from 0.132 to 0.659). Two out of four studies that measured SB reported significant reductions in SB. Interventions that increased PA included a higher number of BCTs, specific BCTs (e.g., goal setting, action planning and self-monitoring), and were delivered by research staff. Intervention length and mode of delivery were unrelated to effectiveness. More studies are needed that evaluate long-term intervention effectiveness and target SBs among older adolescents.     

Effect of chainring ovality on joint power during cycling at different workloads and cadences

Non-circular chainrings theoretically enhance cycling performance by increasing effective chainring diameter and varying crank velocity, but research has failed to consistently reproduce the benefits in cycling trials. The aim of this study was (1) to investigate the effect of different chainring shapes on sagittal knee joint moment and sagittal lower limb joint powers and (2) to investigate whether alterations are affected by cadence and workload. Fourteen elite cyclists cycled in six conditions (70, 90 and 110 rpm, each at 180 and 300 W), for 2 min each, using three chainrings of different ovalities (1.0–1.215). Kinematic data and pedal forces were collected. For most conditions, only the chainring with the highest ovality (1.215) was characterised by smaller sagittal knee joint moments, smaller relative sagittal knee joint power contribution and larger relative sagittal hip joint power contribution, which suggests a change from maximising efficiency to maximising power production. Effect sizes increased with higher cadences, but not with higher workload. This study has application for athletes, clinicians and sports equipment industry as a non-circular chainring can change joint-specific power generation and decrease knee joint moment, but certain ovality seems to be necessary to provoke this effect.     

The effect of exercise interventions on resting metabolic rate: A systematic review and meta-analysis

ABSTRACT

The systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effect of aerobic, resistance and combined exercise on RMR (kCal·day^-1) and performed a methodological assessment of indirect calorimetry protocols within the included studies. Subgroup analyses included energy/diet restriction and body composition changes. Randomized control trials (RCTs), quasi – RCTs and cohort trials featuring a physical activity intervention of any form and duration excluding single exercise bouts were included. Participant exclusions included medical conditions impacting upon RMR, the elderly (≥65 years of age) or pregnant, lactating or post-menopausal women. The review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD 42,017,058,503). 1669 articles were identified; 22 were included in the qualitative analysis and 18 were meta-analysed. Exercise interventions (aerobic and resistance exercise combined) did not increase resting metabolic rate (mean difference (MD): 74.6 kCal·day^-1[95% CI: ?13.01, 161.33], P = 0.10). While there was no effect of aerobic exercise on RMR (MD: 81.65 kCal·day^-1[95% CI: ?57.81, 221.10], P = 0.25), resistance exercise increased RMR compared to controls (MD: 96.17 kCal·day^-1[95% CI: 45.17, 147.16], P = 0.0002). This systematic review effectively synthesises the effect of exercise interventions on RMR in comparison to controls; despite heterogenous methodologies and high risk of bias within included studies.     

Mindfulness mediates the relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing in cyclists

The purpose of this study was to examine the direction and magnitude of the relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing and to explore whether mindfulness mediated this relationship. The design of the study was cross-sectional using self-report data. We recruited 142 recreational cyclists (female?=?32) via online cycling forums. We asked participants to complete measures of mental toughness, dispositional mindfulness, and pain catastrophizing. Following the initial screening of data and the identification of non-normality and outliers, we calculated robust correlations and regressions to examine the size and direction of effects. Results revealed that mindfulness partially mediated a moderate negative relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing. These results are consistent with prior theory regarding positive traits and their negative association with pain catastrophizing. Unique contributions included showing that mental toughness and mindfulness are positively associated and that mindfulness is negatively associated with pain catastrophizing in this sample of cyclists.     

Influence of saddle setback on knee joint forces in cycling

Abstract

Knee functional disorders are one of the most common lower extremity non-traumatic injuries reported by cyclists. Incorrect bicycle configuration may predispose cyclist to injury but the evidence of an effect of saddle setback on knee pain remains inconclusive. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of saddle setback on knee joint forces during pedalling using a musculoskeletal modelling approach. Ten cyclists were assessed under three saddle setback conditions (range of changes in saddle position ~6 cm) while pedalling at a steady power output of 200 W and cadence of 90 rpm. A cycling musculoskeletal model was developed and knee joint forces were estimated using an inverse dynamics method associated with a static optimisation procedure. Our results indicate that moving the saddle forwards was not associated with an increase of patellofemoral joint forces. On the contrary, the tibiofemoral mean and peak compression force were 14 and 15% higher in the Backward than in the Forward condition, respectively. The peak compression force was related to neither pedal force nor quadriceps muscle force but coincided with the eccentric contraction of knee flexor muscles. These findings should benefit bike fitting practitioners and coaches in the design of specific training/rehabilitation protocols.     

Vibrotactile feedback for correcting aerodynamic position of a cyclist

ABSTRACT

Guidance to maintain an optimal aerodynamic position is currently unavailable during cycling. This study used real-time vibrotactile feedback to guide cyclists to a reference position with minimal projected frontal area as an indicator of aerodynamic drag, by optimizing torso, shoulder, head and elbow position without compromising comfort when sitting still on the bike. The difference in recapturing the aerodynamic reference position during cycling after predefined deviations from the reference position at different intensities was analysed for 14 participants between three interventions, consisting of 1) vibrotactile feedback with a margin of error of 1.5% above the calibrated reference projected frontal area, 2) vibrotactile feedback with a margin of 3%, and 3) no feedback. The reference position is significantly more accurately achieved using vibrotactile feedback compared to no feedback (p < 0.001), but there is no significant difference between the 1.5% and 3% margin (p = 0.11) in terms of relative projected frontal area during cycling compared to the calibrated reference position (1.5% margin ?0.46 ± 1.76%, 3% margin ?0.01 ± 2.01%, no feedback 2.59 ± 3.29%). The results demonstrate that vibrotactile feedback can have an added value in assisting and correcting cyclists in recapturing their aerodynamic reference position.