Classroom Environment: a literature review

The literature on classroom environment from 1980 onwards is reviewed. Special reference is made to elementary settings and to students with behavioral deficits. Structure and organization, cognitive processes, student characteristics and teacher characteristics are all seen as being capable of modification. It is concluded that the achievement of a match between students’ preferences and instructional settings is a necessary condition for maximizing their cognitive, social and affective outcomes.     

非实时在线同侪互评环境下学生作者读者意识变化研究

本研究旨在探讨非实时在线同侪互评（ ALN-based peer assessment）促进学生作者读者意识的可行性。借助非实时在线同侪互评,学生作者接收同侪评价的同时,也对同侪的写作实施评价与参考,使其具备作者与读者双重角色,实现在线写作社群的构建,为培养读者意识提供所需的读者群。研究结果显示,学生的写作收到同侪较高频次的显性评价与非显性拜访,写作初稿与终稿的比对结果表明写作质量获得提升,体现出较高的互评频率和互评效能,因而判断有效在线写作社群得以构建。试验后问卷调查表明,有效在线写作社群的构建和该社群中学生作者评价同侪写作的倾向与学生读者意识的提高相关。     

A comparison of reading aloud,silent reading and follower reading. Which is best for comprehension? / Una comparación de lectura en voz alta,lectura en silencio y lectura de seguimiento. ¿Cuál es mejor para la comprensión?

When reading in the classroom, teachers may use different methods. We examined the impact of different reading conditions on comprehension. Reading aloud involved reading the text aloud for an audience. Silent reading required the students to read the text silently. Follower reading involved listening to another student read the text aloud while having the text available for individual reading. Thirty-six fifth- and sixth-grade students read texts under the three conditions and then took comprehension tests. The students performed equally well under reading aloud and silent reading. Follower reading resulted in worse comprehension. The data suggest that the follower readers focused on their individual reading, making an effort not to listen to the student reading out loud, which consumed cognitive resources. Since reading aloud in the classroom involves not only one loud reader but also a lot of follower readers, silent reading might be the smartest choice.     

Use of reflective analysis to achieve exercise participation in a patient with severe cognitive impairment: a case report

ABSTRACT

As individuals decline cognitively physiotherapists’ attitudes become more negative. Evidence supports the use of experiential learning modules in a curriculum to improve student confidence and knowledge to treat individuals with cognitive disorders. Work stemming from Schon’s model of reflection suggests that “reflection-on-specific action” can facilitate clinical decision-making. The purpose of this case report is to describe the use of this model by students working with a patient with severe cognitive impairment. Under the supervision of a neurologic physiotherapist who was also a full-time faculty member in a physiotherapy program, the 74-year-old male with severe cognitive decline worked with two student physiotherapists (10 sessions over 5 weeks). The students reflected upon and journaled before, during, and after each session including every encounter, patient response, and activity. Four themes emerged: (1) capitalize on caregiver involvement and knowledge, (2) salient activities promote engagement, (3) intentional communication, and (4) flexibility throughout treatment. Improved exercise participation was noted as the themes were integrated to a greater degree each session. Cognitive deficits precluded performance for some measures, the 6-minute walk test yielded clinically significant results. The factors identified in this case may be beneficial to developing exercise programs for individuals with severe cognitive deficits to assist with maintaining functional mobility and decrease caregiver burden. This intentional reflective approach to practice may combat negative attitudes by providers and enhance effective communication and intervention implementation. The educational approach increased reflective behaviors demonstrated by students and will be useful to educators interested in facilitating professional development in students.     

华文模拟教学中课堂角色的三重转换

文章对华文模拟教学中指导教师、主讲学员以及听课学员的角色定位进行了探讨。文章指出,指导教师的角色在模拟教学中应在总设计师、典型化学生、主持型导师之间转换;主讲学员的角色在模拟教学中应在参赛选手、特型教师、受评学员之间转换;听课学员的角色应在特型学生、观摩者、点评者之间转换。     

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN TELEVISION PERCEPTION

The content of television, as perceived by researchers and other adults, is widely regarded as a major determiner of the effects of television on children. Yet the field of communications research has long since documented that it is not content per se but rather the audience perceptions of that content that functions as a major determiner of effects. A shift in research and analytic emphasis from adult‐defined content to audience perceptions of content becomes crucial when the audience consists of children. The literature of child development clearly indicated that children perceive their environment differently than do adults. In this article, Piaget's theory of cognitive stage is shown to be a predictor of children's perceptions of television.     

Reasons and rationales for neuropsychological tests in a multitier system of school services

Many contemporary learning disabilities (LD) experts advocate a multitiered service delivery system. Included in this formulation is the obligation to deliver for each struggling student increasingly sophisticated and intensive services before special education is considered. For students who evidence failed response to intervention, an evaluation, suggested by some to comprise minimal cognitive and extensive achievement testing, typically ensues and helps to determine special education eligibility. We argue that neuropsychological tools are essential at this point in the process. In contrast to minimal standardized testing, use of these tools permits school psychologists to perform their most important mission – to understand, predict, and control (improve) student behavior and development by identifying learning syndromes, rather than discrete academic deficits. This article argues for neuropsychological tests as a way for school psychologists to recognize patterns of learning problems reported in the peer‐reviewed literature, which in turn promotes effective planning and intervention. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Student teacher challenges: using the cognitive load theory as an explanatory lens

Cognitive load theory (CLT) can explain the challenges faced by student teachers. This study, guided by the CLT, included 26 pre-service teachers. Participants completed a cognitive load self-report questionnaire and were interviewed at two points during their student teaching. Results revealed that student teachers decreased mental effort related to monitoring their students’ level of attention, meeting needs of diverse learners, and managing internal and external distractions. Qualitative analysis revealed: (1) student teachers became aware of limited cognitive resources; (2) lesson planning imposes cognitive load during student teaching; and (3) cognitive overload limits the ability to make modifications during teaching.     

Teacher Perceptions of Learning Motivation and Classroom Behavior: The Role of Student Characteristics

The present study investigates whether teacher perceptions of students’ cognitive skills, their learning motivation, and their classroom behavior differ according to students’ socioeconomic status, immigrant background, and gender. Data from N = 4746 German fourth graders and data from their parents and teachers were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Controlling for student achievement as measured in a standardized achievement test and student motivation as measured by student and parent reports, we found that teachers overestimated the cognitive skills of high-SES students and girls in comparison to those of low-SES students and boys. Similarly, teachers perceived high-SES students, students who are not from an immigrant background, and girls as having a higher learning motivation and as having more cognitive skills. Finally, we found that teachers’ perceptions of students’ learning motivation and classroom behavior mediated the relationship between student characteristics and cognitive skills as perceived by the teacher.     

Understanding how a case-based assessment instrument influences student teachers’ learning approaches

In order to stimulate student teachers to thoroughly comprehend the main variables influencing their work, teaching and assessment strategies in teacher education have changed significantly. One of the changes in the assessment of student teachers in teacher education programs is the use of case-based assessment instruments. Such instruments evaluate the extent to which student teachers are able to handle authentic problems. It is expected that implementing this mode of assessment will stimulate student teachers to adopt a deep approach to learning. In this study we examine student teachers’ learning approaches in the context of case-based assessment. Hereto, we investigated the direct effects of the student teachers’ general beliefs on the cognitive demands of assessment on their learning approaches. Also the student teachers’ perceptions of the cognitive demands of the case-based assessment instrument were considered as a mediating variable. The present study is conducted in the Netherlands, in the third year of a 4-year initial teacher training program for primary education. A case-based assessment instrument, called the OverAll Test, was implemented as the major determinate of the third-year final examination grade of the student teachers.     

Developing audience awareness in writing

Beginning writers need to consider their audience; but this is only possible when the writer has reached a certain stage of cognitive development, as it is necessary to consider an absent reality (e.g. an audience reading the piece at a later point). Adapting the text to the audience is only possible when the physical task of writing becomes automatic and the writer is no longer absorbed by it. Then the writer is free to pay attention to other aspects of the task without overloading cognitive processes. Procedural facilitation involves the use of external aids to support a simplified version of the processes used by expert writers. It may function as a way of enabling beginning writers to adapt what they write for their audiences. At the same time, as this task becomes automatic, it may be seen as a way of promoting writing development. A quasi–experimental study is described in which a procedural facilitation strategy is used to promote writing skills, in particular, the skill of suiting the text to the communicative context. The study was with fifth and ninth grade Portuguese students. The results of the post–test show significant progress for the experimental groups in contrast to the control groups.     

试论语用预设与认知语境、特殊会话隐涵、信息焦点的关系

发话人所设置的语用预设都在他自己的认知语境范围内,但不一定在受话人的认知语境范围内;受话人所理解的语用预设都在他自己的认知语境范围内,但不一定在发话人的认知语境范围内.特殊会话隐涵是发话人所要表达的实际意思或意图,语用预设是发话人对他的说话语境和受话人的认知语境的一种假定,是实施其言语行为所必须满足的适切条件;分析、推导特殊会话隐涵必须借助上下文语境,而分析、推导语用预设有时不必借助上下文语境.从发话人表达的视角看,语用预设与特殊会话隐涵都属于话语的意外之意,都是根据一定的语用规则从话语中分析、推导出来的,二者之间具有手段与目的的关系;从受话人理解的视角看,二者的关系本质上是认知语境与认知目标的关系.从发话人生成话语的视角讲,语用预设决定着信息焦点的确定;从受话人理解话语的视角看,话语的信息焦点的确认决定着他对话语语用预设的理解.     

The exclusive language of science? Comparing knowledge gains and motivation in English-bilingual biology lessons between non-selected and preselected classes

The dominant role of English as the global language of science entails a requirement for science teachers to equip their non-native English-speaking students with receptive and productive language skills for communication in scientific contexts. Although science courses with English elements are part of some schools’ bilingual programmes, they are usually not available to a wider student audience, but are restricted to high achieving or highly motivated students. The present study was to test whether a newly developed biology content and language integrated learning (CLIL) unit could also benefit standard ninth grade classes. The learning gains and motivation of bilingually inexperienced students were compared to those of a preselected group and a comparison group that had been taught solely in their native language. All participating classes achieved similar gains in content knowledge, and the standard students rated their motivation for bilingual science lessons as positive, albeit not as high as the preselected group. We thus provide evidence against concerns that teaching non-selected students bilingually might lead to deficits in content knowledge acquisition. Following this, we conclude that scientific English should be a part of standard science lessons regardless of specific school programmes.     

The moderating effects of emotions on cognitive skills

An important challenge in higher education today is the growing tutor–student ratio that diminishes the ‘human touch’. As learning and teaching ultimately form an interpersonal process, this will lead to student discontent and impact on their learning. Whilst there is little that teaching practitioners can do in terms of the growing student numbers they have to tutor, they may however influence student learning by enhancing their positive emotions. This study examines the importance of emotions in improving cognitive skills and how they interact with knowledge and reflection. This research contributes to theory by examining the role of emotions as a moderating factor in the learning process. Our findings reveal that emotions moderate the direct relationship between knowledge and cognitive skills, and the indirect relationship between knowledge and cognitive skills via reflection. The findings demonstrate the critical role that emotions play in student learning. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: testing the component model of reading in fourth graders across 38 countries

The authors tested the component model of reading (CMR) among 186,725 fourth grade students from 38 countries (45 regions) on five continents by analyzing the 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study data using measures of ecological (country, family, school, teacher), psychological, and cognitive components. More than 91% of the differences in student difficulty occurred at the country (61%) and classroom (30%) levels (ecological), with less than 9% at the student level (cognitive and psychological). All three components were negatively associated with reading difficulties: cognitive (student's early literacy skills), ecological (family characteristics [socioeconomic status, number of books at home, and attitudes about reading], school characteristics [school climate and resources]), and psychological (students' attitudes about reading, reading self-concept, and being a girl). These results extend the CMR by demonstrating the importance of multiple levels of factors for reading deficits across diverse cultures.     

The effects of audience pleasantness,audience familiarity,and speaking contexts on public speaking anxiety and willingness to speak

Two potential sources of anxiety about public speaking cited in previous research are audience pleasantness and audience familiarity. More familiar audiences, as well as more pleasant ones, usually evoke less anxiety, but research has shown some exceptions to this general rule. In addition, it is expected that as audiences become more pleasant and familiar, individuals would be more willing to speak. Ninety‐five university students each evaluated six situations, in which three levels of audience familiarity (strangers, acquaintances, and friends) were crossed with two levels of audience pleasantness (pleasant and unpleasant). Each student made their ratings with reference to one of three speaking contexts (academic, social, or professional). Using split‐plot ANOVA, a significant three way interaction was obtained for both willingness to speak and public speaking anxiety. In general, pleasantness exerted a stronger effect than familiarity. An audience composed of pleasant friends was the most preferred audience type in both the academic and social contexts. It is argued that previous research demonstrating conflicting effects of audience familiarity may have been generating different expectations for the anticipated pleasantness of the audience.     

Promoting Student Cognitive Development in Counselor Preparation: A Proposed Expanded Role for Faculty Advisers

The development of cognitively complex counselors has been identified as an important component of counselor education. However, there are no models to provide direction for programs to systematically promote student cognitive growth over the entire course of their graduate education. In many counseling programs, the faculty adviser is the one professor who has interactions with a student from admission through graduation and, thus, could serve an important role in coordinating efforts to facilitate student cognitive development. Toward that end, the authors propose a structured advising model to assist faculty advisers in facilitating the cognitive growth of their advisees.     

Modeling the student in intelligent tutoring sytems: The promise of a new psychometrics

This paper reviews a number of relatively new and promising psychometric approaches to the problem of modeling student achievement (the student model) within intelligent tutoring systems (ITS). A shared characteristic of most ITSs is their need to estimate a model of the student's understanding of the domain, and use this model to modify and adapt subsequent instructional content and sequence. Sound cognitive diagnosis and the need to advance ITS technology require the development of student models that are integrated with cognitive theory and instructional science. A number of cognitively oriented psychometric approaches — including latent-trait models, statistical pattern recognition methods, and causal probabilistic networks — are described and discussed within the current ITS framework. As measurement-based student models are refined, we anticipate their compatibility with future generations of intelligent tutoring systems.     

Exploring the Relationship between Cognitive Style and Teaching Style

To a great extent the nature of the relationship between the cognitive style of a student teacher and their predominant teaching style in the classroom has been ignored by educational research. This study used an opportunist sample of 84 trainee teachers studying for one year full time for a Post Graduate Certificate in Education, in a range of subject specialist areas, based at a single English university. Students' cognitive styles were assessed, and those with more extreme cognitive style scores were selected to participate in semi‐structured interviews. A subject specialist mentor had been assigned to each student; 77% (n=59) completed a questionnaire on their perceptions of the teaching style of their PGCE student. Statistically significant differences in approaches to learning and teaching were identified between the four cognitive styles. Gender differences were also noted with analytic‐verbaliser females adopting the most analytical style in the classroom and wholist‐imager males the most wholist style. Qualitative analysis identified differences in approach to teaching between the students with more extreme cognitive styles. Wholists were more sensitive than analytic students to situational factors such as the culture of the school, support from the mentor, and in their ability to accept criticism. Further research is recommended to verify such findings. In this respect, a longitudinal study focusing on changes in cognitive style and approach in the classroom could be fruitful. Consequently, universities need to adopt varied teaching and assessment tools varied in order to accommodate the continuum of cognitive styles.     

从关联性角度阐释广告中的修辞现象

商业广告是一种特殊的交际艺术,具有明显的认知特征。成功的广告总是能否抓住广告受众的心理,尤其是受众的认知心理。关联理论作为探索交际与认知关系的语用理论,对于解释广告语言对于受众的影响具有一定启示。本文在现有关联理论中的认知语境,最佳相关原则等概念的基础上,结合广告修辞中的具体言语实例,阐述了这一理论的语用价值,揭示了关联理论框架对实践的指导意义。