An Approach to Economic Evaluation in Undergraduate Anatomy Education

Medical education research is becoming increasingly concerned with the value (defined as “educational outcomes per dollar spent”) of different teaching approaches. However, the financial costs of various approaches to teaching anatomy are under-researched, making evidence-based comparisons of the value of different teaching approaches impossible. Therefore, the aims of this study were to report the cost of six popular anatomy teaching methods through a specific, yet generalizable approach, and to demonstrate a process in which these results can be used in conjunction with existing effectiveness data to undertake an economic evaluation. A cost analysis was conducted to report the direct and indirect costs of six anatomy teaching methods, using an established approach to cost-reporting. The financial information was then combined with previously published information about the effectiveness of these six teaching methods in increasing anatomy knowledge, thereby demonstrating how estimations of value can be made. Dissection was reported as the most expensive teaching approach and computer aided instruction/learning (CAI/L) was the least, based on an estimation of total cost per student per year and assuming a student cohort size of just over 1,000 (the United Kingdom average). The demonstrated approach to economic evaluation suggested computer aided instruction/learning as the approach that provided the most value, in terms of education outcomes per dollar spent. The study concludes by suggesting that future medical education research should incorporate substantially greater consideration of cost, in order to draw important conclusions about value for learners.     

Computer-assisted instruction for dispersed populations: System cost models

Provision of CAI of any sophistication requires-at least with present technology-the existence of a large central computing system. Thus, if rural regions or dispersed populations (e.g. deaf students) are to be able to share in the potential of CAI, an extensive communication system is required. This paper provides cost estimates for a CAI system capable of handling 1300 highly despersed student terminals; in order to do this it develops cost models for alternative te restrial and satellite communication systems. Perhaps the most interesting result to emerge from the analysis is the viability of a satellite based system; for average terminal to computer distances on the order of 500 miles there is a distinct advantage for satellite based systems. Assuming 2,000 hours per year usuage of the student erminals, the system cost for a satellite based system serving a highly dispersed population is $ 0.85 per student contact hour.This work was supported by Grant No. OEG-0-70-4797 from the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, U.S. Office of Education, to the Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS), Stanford University. Portions of the paper were previously presented at the XXII International Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Brussels, September 1971, and at the International School on Computers in Education, Pugnochiuso, Italy, July 1972.John Ball is the manager of the Computer Based Laboratory of IMSSS; Dean Jamison is a staff member of IMSSS, Assistant Professor of Management Science, Graduate School of Business, and Assistant Professor (by courtesy), School of Education, Stanford University. The authors are indebted to J. E. G. Ferraz and Joanne Leslie Jamison for valuable assistance with this paper.     

An Analysis of the Cost-Effectiveness of Educational Radio in Nepal

This study attempted to analyse the cost-effectiveness of the Radio Education Teacher Training Project in Nepal. Cost-effectiveness is denned as a procedure by which the cost of alternative means of achieving a stated objective, or conversely, the effectiveness of alternative means for a given cost, are compared in a series of numerical indices. Comparison of the costs of the Radio Education Teacher Training Project and the Campus-Based Teacher Training Programme showed the latter to be much higher.     

高职教师培训机构培训效果有效性评价——以江苏省高等职业教育教师培训中心2013-2019年省培项目为案例

在同一套评价指标体系内,对于参加高职培训的学员而言,只要不存在恶意的倾向,在总体上基于参训学员主观判断而所实际打出的分值会趋于相近或相同,这一结果显示出参训学员所打分值的内在统一性。文章运用统一性检验方法,以江苏省高等职业教育教师培训中心为案例,对高职教师培训机构培训效果有效性进行了评价,从而为高职教师培训机构培训效果的有效性评价提供新的思路和方法。     

Effectiveness of motivationally adaptive computer-assisted instruction on the dynamic aspects of motivation

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a prototype of motivationally-adaptive computer-assisted instruction (CAI). The foundation for motivational theory and design was provided by the ARCS model (an acronym formed from attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction). This model provides a definition of motivation, a motivational design process, and recommendations for motivational strategies. Three treatment conditions were considered: (a) motivationally adaptive CAI, (b) motivationally saturated CAI, and (c) motivationally minimized CAI. Dependent variables were effectiveness, perceived motivation (both overall motivation and each of A, R, C, & S components), efficiency, and continuing motivation. The motivationally adaptive CAI showed higher effectiveness, overall motivation, and attention than the other two CAI types. For efficiency, both motivationally adaptive CAI and motivationally minimized CAI were higher than motivationally saturated CAI. For continuing motivation, there were no significant differences among the three CAI types, but a significant correlation was found between overall motivation and continuing motivation across the three CAI types. This study supports the conclusion that CAI can be designed to be motivationally adaptive to respond to changes in learner motivation that may occur over time. It also illustrates that the ARCS model can be useful and effective in support of designing for these dynamic aspects of motivation.     

对韩国学分银行体系的成本分担分析

文章利用韩国国家终身教育振兴院提供的内部财政数据,基于成本分担理论对韩国学分银行体系的成本分担进行分析,研究发现韩国学分银行体系已经形成了一个基于国家财政、学习者用户、运营机构、企事业单位等多渠道的经费筹措方式:国家通过多种形式和渠道给予财政支持分担成本;学习者用户通过学分和文凭手续费分担成本;运营机构利用利息收入分担成本;企事业单位通过"受托事业"为学分银行提供资金支持分担成本。同时,文章借鉴韩国学分银行成本分担方式为中国学分银行制度的建设提出了相关建议,以期促进我国学分银行制度的建设与发展。     

The effectiveness of man-machine tutorial dialogues for teaching attribute blocks problem-solving skills with an Artificial Intelligence CAI System

Two prominent design features of an Artificial Intelligence CAI (AI CAI) System for teaching problem-solving skills were experimentally evaluated. Seventy-six subjects were randomly assigned to four treatment groups formed by factorially combining two values each of two system design variables. The variables were the ability/lack of ability of the system to answer specific student generated questions regarding the current problem state, and the inclusion/exclusion of computer generated tutorial dialogues aimed at correcting student misprocessing of information during the solution of the problem. Analysis of the data indicated that students receiving computer generated instructional dialogues performed significantly more poorly on a transfer task than students not receiving such tutorial dialogues. The variable of student initiated questioning and the interaction of the two variables yielded non-significant results. Goal-directed production systems are reported to formally model task performance and instructional decision-making activities. The usefulness of these formal modeling techniques to instructional system design and evaluation is illustrated in a detailed analysis of the system's performance. Implications for future instructional system design techniques using the AI CAI approach are discussed.This article is based upon the author's unpublished doctoral dissertation.     

Differential adoption of study approaches within individual students

It has been claimed that the study approach adopted by a student will vary dependent, in part, upon the nature of the learning task at hand. The same student will change approaches from one task to another. The prime evidence for this claim seems to derive from two sources; reports from interview studies, and questionnaire studies comparing separate groups of students enrolled in different courses. In the present study questionnaire responses were collected from students asked to report comparatively on their learning approaches in two course units taken concurrently, and on their perceptions of how those same two units had been presented. The general support which was indeed found for the approach versus learning context claim was thus qualitatively different to, and genuinely strengthened, that from interview studies and that from between-groups studies. Moreover, relationships found between marks and both approach and learning context, within each compared course unit, provided support for a context to approach to performance model of influence.The research reported in this paper was supported from the recurrent funds of the Higher Education Advisory and Research Unit, Monash University.     

Potential economies of scale at the university of Bradford

Conclusions It seems that considerable potential economies of scale exist if the University of Bradford is representative. If enrolment is doubled with present accommodation surpluses and course structures, then average costs per student may fall by between 11 and 38 percent, depending upon the course involved and the assumptions made. Further substantial cost reductions would arise with a course structure which handled two intakes a year.However, we became increasingly aware during our research of the absence of any built-in incentive to use resources efficiently. This was most obvious in the case of buildings which were designed in a manner which fits academic requirements more like a sack than a glove, and which, once constructed, were regarded as free goods. It was also the case in respect of current items of expenditure, for under the present system of British university financing and planning, universities know in advance, subject to certain specific exceptions, their income for a five-year period and the approximate number and type of students they will enrol. Thus cost per student over the quinquennium has been determined before the students enter. Once the quinquennium has begun there are few real ways to effect economies since revenue and therefore expenditure have already been determined, nor is there any incentive for universities to cut costs per graduate. The critical time to achieve economies is therefore before quinquennial recurrent grants are fixed, and the power to do this lies with the University Grants Committee and the Department of Education and Science, not with the individual universities. Thereafter universities would need to react to such economies by implementing them as painlessly as possible.This paper demonstrates that substantial economies may be expected in per-student costs at the University of Bradford as the number of undergraduates increases. Further details may be obtained from the authors.     

制度成本与社会主体的理性选择

制度成本范畴是一个综合性的成本指标体系,它涵盖了与制度有关的所有成本投入的总和,主要有制度的设计与创生成本、运行成本和改进与变迁成本等。制度成本投入的理性选择是,制度投入的边际成本等于其边际收益,适度提高制度的设计成本以降低其运行成本和变迁成本,实现激励（制约）成本均衡和各种成本投入合理化,消除观念隔阂借鉴先进制度降低人为的制度成本。     

Engaging in the ‘course efficiency’ discussion: national drivers and local responses

Abstract

This article presents a method to evaluate undergraduate and postgraduate course teaching efficiency systematically, alongside measuring effectiveness of curriculum content and delivery. We argue that efficiency is aligned to cost and revenue while effectiveness is a quality-related construct. These potentially antagonistic elements – cost, revenue and quality – must be kept in balance if courses are to be attractive to students (high quality) and financially viable. Curriculum data collection and analysis spanned micro (unit), meso (course) and macro (faculty) level. Revenue data consisted of annual teaching student enrolment numbers by unit of study, aggregated to course level. Cost data included academic and administrative staff costs, and student professional experience placement expenditure. A teaching revenue to cost of delivery ratio metric and course quality score metric were developed to enable comparisons of units and course performance. Over time, these metrics, when utilised together, could be used to determine the impact of quality improvement interventions on teaching cost and revenue and vice versa. We argue that this approach supports strategic planning and actions to improve both efficiency and effectiveness of units and courses, without negatively affecting quality.     

Effectiveness of Using Computer-Assisted Supplementary Instruction for Teaching the Mole Concept

This study examined the effect of computer-assisted instruction (CAI), used as a problem-solving supplement to classroom instruction, on students' understanding of chemical formulas and mole concept, their attitudes toward chemistry subjects, and CAI. The objective was to assess the effectiveness of CAI over recitation hours when both teaching methods were used as a supplement to the traditional chemistry instruction. We randomly selected two classes in a secondary school. Each teaching strategy was randomly assigned to one class. The experimental group received supplementary instruction delivered via CAI, while the control group received similar instruction through recitation hours. The data were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance and t-test. It was found that the students who used the CAI accompanied with lectures scored significantly higher than those who attended recitation hours, in terms of school subject achievement in chemistry and attitudes toward chemistry subjects. In addition, there was a significant improvement in the attitudes of students in the experimental group toward the use of computers in a chemistry course. There was no significant difference between the performances of females versus males in each treatment group.     

运用ATM高速网技术建立多媒体CAI课室

ＡＴＭ是目前最先进的网络交换技术，它使网上实时传输声音、视频图像成为可能，在多媒体ＣＡＩ方面具有广阔的应用前景。汕头大学率先引进了ＩＢＭＡＴＭ２５．６Ｍ的桌面系统，并在多媒体ＣＡＩ课室的建立和应用上取得初步成效。同时，介绍多媒体ＣＡＩ课室的建立及课件的开发     

BOOK REVIEWS

Data from NCES indicate that it is two to three times more expensive to educate a student at a public four-year college than at a community college. These figures exaggerate the difference between the two when you calculate the costs of the first two years of education for students working on a bachelor's degree. Using modified Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) data from the recently released Delta Project, this study shows that the cost per full-time equivalent (FTE) and the public subsidy per FTE are lower at public master's level colleges than at the community college. Trend data from 1987–2005 are examined along with appropriate cautions for interpreting the results.     

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Early Reading Programs: A Demonstration With Recommendations for Future Research

Abstract

We review the value of cost-effectiveness analysis for evaluation and decision making with respect to educational programs and discuss its application to early reading interventions. We describe the conditions for a rigorous cost-effectiveness analysis and illustrate the challenges of applying the method in practice, providing examples of programs for which we have estimated costs, but find effectiveness data lacking in comparability. We provide a demonstration of how cost-effectiveness analysis can be applied to two early reading programs: the Wilson Reading System and Corrective Reading. We use existing effectiveness data from an experimental evaluation in which the programs were implemented under similar conditions and the use of common outcomes measures for both programs yielded data that are comparable. We combine these data with cost data we collected using the ingredients method to calculate cost-effectiveness ratios for the alphabetics domain. A complete picture of the relative cost-effectiveness of each program could be provided if effectiveness metrics were available for fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. We highlight the obstacles to applying cost-effectiveness analysis more frequently and recommend strategies for improving the availability of the requisite data.     

保定初级师范学堂建校初期办学概况（1904-1906）

保定初级师范学堂建堂初期为简易科,办学宗旨为造就直隶初等小学堂教员,隶属于直隶学务处,首任监督由学务处总理严修代理,教职员从学务处的工作人员中选拔,面向全省招收举贡生员。学堂治学严谨,具有严格的管理制度和奖惩措施,培养两期学员后暂停招生。     

A case study of peer learning in higher aeronautical education

In order to improve student learning in an advanced course in aeronautics, lectures are replaced with more student-centred sessions based on peer learning. The course is organised in student teams, with the main task of delivering lecture requests for full class discussions. For the same reason, the written theory exam is replaced by a peer review of student reports. The new approach is found to result in a substantial increase of student–student and student–teacher interaction, leading to observable improvements in the course results. Finally, some feedback from the students is presented, being in great favour of the peer learning approach.     

Competition in individualized CAI

Designers of computer-based practice systems give primary attention to aspects of cognitive learning. However, observations of students practicing arithmetic, with two CAI systems widely used in Israel, revealed factors in the computer learning environment that substantially affected students' social behavior, particularly with respect to competition and cooperation in the course of learning. A questionnaire was designed on the basis of the observations to examine the effects of these factors in CAI work. It was administered to 457 fourth graders in 16 classes (two CAI systems x two SES categories x two schools x two classes). While neither CAI system was intended to foster competition, the observations and questionnaire data suggested that one encourages social comparison and competition whereas the other discourages these features and encourages cooperation and peer help. Boys appear to be significantly more competitive than girls. One system, compared with the other, significantly increases competitive behavior of high achievers (but not of low achievers); results in teachers' greater encouragement of social comparison and competition among students; and, as used in the schools we studied, causes disadvantaged students rather than advantaged students to develop negative feelings because of low CAI performance. The other system discourages competitive behavior and encourages cooperation. All these findings bear important implications for the instructional design of computer-based learning environments.     

Higher Education Funding: A Decade of Changes

The authors, two French specialists on the financing of higher education, reflect on the conclusions they drew in an article, "Rethinking the Financing of Post-Compulsory Education", which they published in this review ten years ago. As they foresaw, higher education funding became increasingly based on mixed sources with students being required to pay a greater share of the costs of their education. But mechanisms to make cost sharing increasingly equitable have been refined. At the same time, the determination of actual costs per institution, per course programme, and even per course has become increasingly accurate, and funding is increasingly taking into account the verdict of performance indicators of various kinds. The funding of research is being increasingly differentiated from funding for teaching/learning. Across the board, higher education institutions have had to do more for less.     

对高职院校体育教学改革的思考

围绕高等职业教育培养目标与学生现状，对高职体育教学应进行改革。本在对高职学生进行调研的基础上提出：高职院校体育教学改革的思路应以调职教育培养目标为依据，针对高职学生的身心特点，设置新的体育课程系列，改革考核方式，为学生终身锻炼奠实基础。