词项标记存在的限定条件

标记理论从音位学向其他领域的扩展产生并推广了的标记理论。其代表人物Lyons认定词项标记成立的基本条件有两点：词项之间必须存在差异;词项之间必须成对立关系。但是,在区分标记现象与非标记现象时,还应该对两个基本条件作如下的限定：相对立的词项处于同一范畴中;相对立的词项处于同一语境中;相对立的词项在形式上能互相区别。     

论词语语用意义的交际价值

语用学将词语意义的生成和确立看成是一种社会行为，因而十分关注话语上下文、语境和社会文化等因素，充分注意交际双方在动态的社会交往过程中对词语在会话中含意确立的磋商、推理和建构。因此，词的语用意义常因人因事而异，具有附属性、体验性、不明确性等三大特点，且在言语交际中的表达功能和作用方式各不相同，具有不同的交际价值。     

Young Children''s Disambiguation of Object Name Reference

Children show a disambiguation effect--a tendency to select unfamiliar rather than familiar things as the referents of new names. In previous studies, this effect has been reversed in young 2-year-olds, but not older children, by preexposing the unfamiliar objects, suggesting that attraction to novelty controls 2-years-olds' choices of referents for new names, but a mutual exclusivity and/or lexical gap-filling principle determines preschoolers' selections. Both the disambiguation effect and its reversal by preexposure were replicated in the present study; however, 24-month-olds' rate of selecting unfamiliar over familiar kinds was less when they were simply asked to choose between the items than when they were asked to identify the referents of unfamiliar names. Thus, some young children may have both an attraction to novel tokens and a tendency to honor an abstract lexical principle. Referent selections were also affected by object typicality and word similarity. Correlations between the tendency to acknowledge a new name's unfamiliarity and to treat it like a similar-sounding familiar name suggested that youngsters' phonological matching skills affect their interpretation of new names. Also, 4-year-olds who most often mapped distinctive-sounding new names to unfamiliar kinds tended to admit their unfamiliarity with these names most frequently, suggesting that children's increasing awareness of their own knowledge begins to affect their lexical processing during the preschool years.     

Influence of Item Parameter Estimation Errors in Test Development

Item response models are finding increasing use in achievement and aptitude test development. Item response theory (IRT) test development involves the selection of test items based on a consideration of their item information functions. But a problem arises because item information functions are determined by their item parameter estimates, which contain error. When the "best" items are selected on the basis of their statistical characteristics, there is a tendency to capitalize on chance due to errors in the item parameter estimates. The resulting test, therefore, falls short of the test that was desired or expected. The purposes of this article are (a) to highlight the problem of item parameter estimation errors in the test development process, (b) to demonstrate the seriousness of the problem with several simulated data sets, and (c) to offer a conservative solution for addressing the problem in IRT-based test development.     

Use of a mnemonic technique to teach young children foreign language vocabulary

Children 3 to 6 years of age learned simple Spanish vocabulary items using an adaptation of the keyword method of foreign language vocabulary learning. Using this version of the keyword method, the learner remembered a picture of the translation referent of the vocabulary item interacting with the referent of a concrete English word which sounded like part of the foreign word (the keyword). Children who used the keyword method remembered more vocabulary translations than children who were not instructed in keyword method usage.     

Answer Changing on Objective Tests

Abstract

In an attempt to identify some of the causes of answer changing behavior, the effects of four tests and item specific variables were evaluated. Three samples of New Zealand school children of different ages were administered tests of study skills. The number of answer changes per item was compared with the position of each item in a group of items, the position of each item in the test, the discrimination index and the difficulty index of each item. It is shown that answer changes were more likely to be made on items occurring early in a group of items and toward the end of a test. There was also a tendency for difficult items and items with poor discriminations to be changed more frequently. Some implications of answer changing in the design of tests are discussed.     

《水浒语词词典》补正

李法白、刘镜芙两位先生的《水浒语词词典》是一部重要的近代汉语专书词汇研究著作,但由于种种原因,这本书在收词、释义与义项上还存在一些缺憾,我们依据《水浒》及其它语料,对这些情况分别予以补正。     

主观题与客观题辨议

主客观题实际上是一个连续体,"主观题客观化"和"客观题主观化"在这个连续体上向对方无限趋近,"客观题主观化"在教育考试中有借鉴意义。文章以我国高考和研究生入学考试的试卷为例,探讨了主观题与客观题比例设置问题。主观题与客观题的有机结合反映了各国考试理念的融合。题型的设计不仅与考查目标有关,还与学科特点有关,并随着认识的深入而发展。     

Syntactic Cues Help Disambiguate Objects Referred to With Count Nouns: Illustration With Malay Children

Children employ multiple cues to identify the referent of a novel word. Novel words are often embedded in sentences and children have been shown to use syntactic cues to differentiate between types of words (adjective vs. nouns) and between types of nouns (count vs. mass nouns). In this study, we show that children learning Malay (N = 67), a numeral classifier language, can use syntactic cues to perform even finer-grained disambiguation–between count nouns. The manipulation of congruence between lexical and syntactic cues reveals a clear developmental trajectory: while 5-year-olds use predominantly lexical cues, older children increasingly rely on syntactic cues, such that by 7 years of age, they disambiguate between objects referred to with count nouns using syntactic rather than lexical cues.     

Linguistic Complexity,Schematic Representations,and Differential Item Functioning for English Language Learners in Math Tests

This article examines nonmathematical linguistic complexity as a source of differential item functioning (DIF) in math word problems for English language learners (ELLs). Specifically, this study investigates the relationship between item measures of linguistic complexity, nonlinguistic forms of representation and DIF measures based on item response theory difficulty parameters in a state fourth-grade math test. This study revealed that the greater the item nonmathematical lexical and syntactic complexity, the greater are the differences in difficulty parameter estimates favoring non-ELLs over ELLs. However, the impact of linguistic complexity on DIF is attenuated when items provide nonlinguistic schematic representations that help ELLs make meaning of the text, suggesting that their inclusion could help mitigate the negative effect of increased linguistic complexity in math word problems.     

Multiple-Choice Models: The Distractors Are Also Part of the Item

This paper describes an item response model for multiple-choice items and illustrates its application in item analysis. The model provides parametric and graphical summaries of the performance of each alternative associated with a multiple-choice item; the summaries describe each alternative's relationship to the proficiency being measured. The interpretation of the parameters of the multiple-choice model and the use of the model in item analysis are illustrated using data obtained from a pilot test of mathematics achievement items. The use of such item analysis for the detection of flawed items, for item design and development, and for test construction is discussed.     

儿童数学能力的动态评价

本研究编制了一份含有6个题目、各题目包含3个层次的评价任务的标准化动态评价工具,以评估儿童在数、量、形、关系等领域的数学能力.该工具通过改变任务的结构、呈现方式、指导语以及提供操作材料等方式为儿童提供越来越具体和直接的中介支持,以逐渐降低评价任务的难度.根据中介支持的具体程度和直接程度以及任务分数的高低,可以判断儿童学习潜能的大小.本研究采用该工具对235名4岁2个月至6岁1个月的儿童进行数学能力评价的结果表明,标准化动态评价能够提供与静态评价一样有效的关于儿童学习结果的信息;与静态评价相比,动态评价不仅能够了解儿童能否独立解决问题、完成任务,而且能够了解儿童在何种水平上通过怎样的中介支持来解决任务,从而为教育者提供更多有关儿童学习潜能的信息.     

ISSUES IN ITEM BANKING

An item bank is defined as a relatively large collection of easily accessible test questions. A wide variety of item bank schemes that meet this relatively unrestricted definition is illustrated. Advantages and disadvantages of item banking and the conditions under which item banks have the most potential value are identified. An extensive list of questions to be asked in designing item banking systems is provided. The following five questions were singled out for further discussion: How many items should be in the bank? Should users develop their own item collections or use the collections of others? How should the items be classified? Should items be calibrated? Will each test have different items or will the same test be administered to all?     

Parents' Beliefs About Their Children's Cognitive, Social, and Motor Functioning

This study investigated the accuracy of parents' judgments about their children's cognitive, social, and motor abilities as well as the relationship between accuracy of prediction, and child performance. Subjects were preschool-age children and their mothers. Mothers were significantly less accurate in predicting their child's success or failure on the social items than on the cognitive and motor items. In all domains, overestimations of ability were more common than underestimations, with the greatest incidence of overestimations occurring for social items. The correlation between accurate predictions by the mother and correct response by the child was .79, and the correlation between overestimation and child competence was -.80. These findings support the “match” hypothesis, which posits that mothers who have more knowledge of their children are better able to create optimally challenging environments. Reasons for mothers' poorer ability to predict and greater tendency to overestimate their children's social understanding are discussed.     

词汇重复对非叙述类作文质量影响的多因素分析——以2007年12月CET-6作文为例

Hoey词汇重复模式理论指导我们考察了2007年12月CET-6作文中的词汇粘结数、实义词项和语法词项重复对作文质量的影响。结果表明：（1）作文中实义词项和语法词项的重复与六级作文质量的共同变异达到了50％和45％,它们分别与作文质量呈显著性正相关和负相关。（2）作文质量与词汇粘结数显著性正相关,它们的共同变异达56％。（3）实义词项重复和词汇粘结数的交互作用对作文质量的影响不显著。（4）因素分析表明：粘结数和实义词项重复对作文质量的影响比语法词项重复对作文质量的影响更强。     

论汉语古语词功能义的义项设立

通过对5部代表性辞书中"耻"、"辱"、"惊"、"惧"诸词功能义义项设立情况的考察分析,发现现行辞书对古语词功能义的义项设立处于一种率意而为的混乱状态。认为:受动义不应专设义项;"使动义"和"意动义"等的义项设立应据辞书的性质特点而定。     

Central-place foraging by rats on the radial maze: The effects of patch size,food distribution,and travel time

Rats foraged on a four-arm radial maze with one, two, three, and four food items (0.65.g pieces of cheese) placed on different arms (patches) of the maze. In two experiments, the hypothesis was tested that rats should carry food to the center of the maze more often when a patch contains one food item than when it contains multiple food items. Support for this prediction was found when the tendency to carry initial items encountered in patches was compared among the different sized patches. However, a further observation failed to support the hypothesis: Food carrying declined from first to last item encountered in multiple-item patches with clustered food items. Experiment 1 revealed that food carrying was reduced when travel time was increased by barriers placed at arm entrances. Both Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that the tendency for rats to carry food to the center of the radial maze increased as the distance of food encountered on an arm increased from the center. In both experiments, some rats dealt with the problem of multiple items by resorting to multiple-item loading, and some rats carried food items from the end of an arm to a point on the arm nearer the center for consumption.     

阅读理解多项选择题项目分析

为保证语言测试题目的质量和加强题库建设,本文基于经典测试理论,使用Gitest Ⅲ对一份高考试卷（阅读部分）题目进行项目分析,结果显示：该阅读题目的难度、区分度较理想,但难度分布并不理想。建议在使用题库中的组合试卷前先进行试测,以改进试题的难度分布以及部分题目选项的质量,从而提高试题的信度和效度。     

The Relationship of Content Characteristics of GRE Analytical Reasoning Items to Their Difficulties and Discriminations

In actual test development practice, the number o f test items that must be developed and pretested is typically greater, and sometimes much greater, than the number that is eventually judged suitable for use in operational test forms. This has proven to be especially true for one item type–analytical reasoning-that currently forms the bulk of the analytical ability measure of the GRE General Test. This study involved coding the content characteristics of some 1,400 GRE analytical reasoning items. These characteristics were correlated with indices of item difficulty and discrimination. Several item characteristics were predictive of the difficulty of analytical reasoning items. Generally, these same variables also predicted item discrimination, but to a lesser degree. The results suggest several content characteristics that could be considered in extending the current specifications for analytical reasoning items. The use of these item features may also contribute to greater efficiency in developing such items. Finally, the influence of these various characteristics also provides a better understanding of the construct validity of the analytical reasoning item type.     

IRT Item Parameter Scaling for Developing New Item Pools

Increasing use of item pools in large-scale educational assessments calls for an appropriate scaling procedure to achieve a common metric among field-tested items. The present study examines scaling procedures for developing a new item pool under a spiraled block linking design. The three scaling procedures are considered: (a) concurrent calibration, (b) separate calibration with one linking, and (c) separate calibration with three sequential linking. Evaluation across varying sample sizes and item pool sizes suggests that calibrating an item pool simultaneously results in the most stable scaling. The separate calibration with linking procedures produced larger scaling errors as the number of linking steps increased. The Haebara’s item characteristic curve linking resulted in better performances than the test characteristic curve (TCC) linking method. The present article provides an analytic illustration that the test characteristic curve method may fail to find global solutions in polytomous items. Finally, comparison of the single- and mixed-format item pools suggests that the use of polytomous items as the anchor can improve the overall scaling accuracy of the item pools.