The impact of socioeconomic status on parental factors in promoting academic achievement in Chinese children

Children from families of low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to experience lower academic achievement than children from middle-SES families. This discrepancy can be attributed to a range of parental factors. The present study tested: (1) the extent to which academic achievement in three core subjects differs between children from low- and middle-SES backgrounds; (2) the differences in parental expectation, parental involvement, and child engagement across the two groups; and (3) the mediating role of parental expectation, parental involvement, and child engagement in explaining how SES influences children’s academic achievement. The sample consisted of 184 primary students with low SES and 165 primary students with middle SES from mainstream primary schools in Hong Kong. Results revealed significant differences in parental expectation, parental involvement, child engagement, as well as academic achievement in Chinese and English subjects between the low-SES and middle-SES groups. Our findings also suggest that parental expectation, parental involvement, and child engagement may be important mediators in the relationship between SES and academic achievement.     

Achievement Attributions of Sixth Grade Children and Their Parents

The present study examines the achievement attributions of Greek Cypriot students and their parents. Its aim was to investigate the role of parental and child achievement attributions as parameters of the child's actual school achievement and to examine the existing differences between attributions made by children and their parents. A total of 477 Sixth Grade Greek Cypriot students and their parents participated in the study. A structural equation model was constructed and its ability to fit the data was tested. It was found that child attributions of achievement to effort, ability and other internal factors are positively related to actual achievement, while attributions to luck and external factors are negatively related to achievement. This is in line with earlier findings. Parental and child attributions are not strongly and reliably related. Thus, claims that children develop their own attributions on the basis of their parents’ attributions were not supported. Gender differences were found, with females attributing their achievement to effort more than males did. Finally, underachievers tended to attribute their school performance to external factors (luck, role of others such as parents and teachers), while highly achieving students tended to attribute their performance to their own effort and other internal factors.     

Context of academic achievement: lessons from Hong Kong

Vygotsky speculated that parents play an important role in the intellectual development of their children, and that this role includes the transfer of expectations related to their children's academic achievement. Consequently, different parents can produce different contexts of academic achievement for their children. The participants were 215 Primary 5 and 6 students from four primary schools in Hong Kong, and their parents. Students were administered a test of working memory and their academic achievement was indicated by their school‐assessed mathematics and language achievement scores. Parents reported their expectations of their children's academic achievement, the extent of their home and school involvement, and their educational and income levels. Correlational and sequential regression analyses showed that different schools yielded different contexts of academic achievement. The results support the hypothesis that parents, and especially parental expectations, play an important role in children's academic achievement, and that within Hong Kong different schools can be characterised by different contexts of achievement.     

Academic Expectations,Belief of Ability,and Involvement by Parents as Predictors of Child Achievement: A cross‐cultural comparison

The aim of the present study was to test the hypotheses that parents’ academic expectations, their perception of children’s cognitive ability, and their degree of involvement at home and school would predict children’s academic achievement, and that there would be important differences in this achievement as a consequence of differences in culture. A sample of 158 parents of students from three primary schools (two Chinese and one of Anglo‐Celtic origin) in Hong Kong participated in this study. The three groups of parents differed in terms of both culture and socio‐economic status. Parents completed a questionnaire about their perceptions of their children’s memory ability, their involvement in their children’s activities, and expected and satisfactory scores for their children’s achievement in mathematics and language. Unstandardised achievement scores in mathematics and language were obtained from school records. Parents’ expected scores in these two subjects were found to be the consistent predictors of achievement for all children. Parental belief in children’s episodic memory and involvement at school were predictors of language achievement in one school.     

Attributional beliefs of Singapore students: relations to self-construal,competence and achievement goals

This study investigates attributional beliefs of Singapore secondary students in their English study and how they can be predicted by self-construal, competence and achievement goals. A total of 1,496 students were administered surveys on seven attributions, independent and interdependent self-construals, previous achievement, self-efficacy, mastery approach and avoidance goals and performance approach and avoidance goals. We found that Singapore students attributed academic success mainly to internal regulation (effort, interest and study skills), followed by teachers’ help, ability, parents’ help and tuition classes. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that three predictors (self-construal, competence and achievement goals) explained 4.2–12.3% of the variances in students’ attributional beliefs. In particular, students with interdependent self-construal, high competence or mastery goals tended to attribute academic success to internal regulation (effort, interest and study skills) and support from teachers and parents. Students with low competence, high mastery avoidance goals or high performance goals were more likely to value tuition classes, and those with high performance avoidance goals also tended to ascribe academic success to ability and parent’s help. The findings are discussed in relation to the culture of Singapore.     

Homework involvement and functions: perceptions of Hong Kong Chinese primary school students and parents

This study examines the perceptions of Chinese students and parents in Hong Kong on homework involvement, assignment type and homework functions. The relationships of homework perceptions to student and parent attributes are also assessed. The sample includes 1393 pairs of students and their parents from 36 primary schools in Hong Kong. Findings of this study show similarities in preference for assignment type across students and parents. Between‐group discrepancies are observed in preference for homework involvement and endorsement of homework functions. Moreover, homework perceptions are found to relate to students’ and parents’ efficacy attributes and involvement behaviour. Findings of this study are discussed in light of the Chinese sociocultural context in Hong Kong. Suggestions are made on the design and use of homework in primary schools by incorporating the views of different stakeholders.     

Children’s cognitive ability and their academic achievement: the mediation effects of parental expectations

It is generally accepted that cognitive ability predicts academic achievement, and that parental involvement and expectations form part of the constellation of factors that predict their children??s academic achievement, particularly for families within the Chinese-heritage Cultures. Although a number of interactions between these parental factors have been proposed, the mediation effects of parental expectations on their children??s cognitive ability in predicting academic achievement are yet to be established. Data from 780 students from one primary school in Hong Kong and their parents were used to generate structural equation models to test the hypothesis that parental affective factors, as indicated by parental home and school involvement, parental beliefs of their children??s ability and parental expectations of their children??s academic scores, mediate the effects of student IQ score in predicting school achievement in English, Chinese and Mathematics. The results support the hypothesis that parents help their children to actualize their cognitive ability by directly communicating their academic expectations to their children.     

The relationship of school-based parental involvement with student achievement: a comparison of principal and parent survey reports from PISA 2012

This paper explores parental involvement using principal and parent survey reports to examine whether parents’ involvement in their children’s schools predicts academic achievement. Survey data from principals and parents of seven countries from the PISA 2012 database and hierarchical linear modelling were used to analyse between- and within- school variance in students’ math achievement. Factor analysis of both principal and parent responses revealed three dimensions of parental involvement with schools: parent-initiated involvement, teacher-initiated involvement and parent volunteerism. Principal reports of parent-initiated involvement positively predicted between-school differences in student achievement. Within schools, parent reports of teacher-initiated involvement negatively predicted student achievement. The paper shows the importance of understanding the source of information for survey measures. Information on parental involvement from the parent surveys of the PISA study is suitable for describing within-school variation in student achievement, whereas principal reports can be used to predict variation between schools.     

What are the affective and social outcomes for low-achieving students within an inclusive school in Hong Kong?

In response to several major curriculum reforms in Hong Kong since 2000, schools were required to initiate policies that catered for learner diversity. As well academic achievement, the reforms also emphasized the affective and social outcomes of the learning experience. A whole-school approach to learner diversity includes students with low academic achievement and mild disabilities, with schools being free to develop policies and practices inline with the needs of the students, teachers, and parents. Against the Chinese cultural context, where high academic achievement is highly valued, this study describes the affective and social outcomes of students in one Hong Kong primary school that streamed students according to achievement level. Four hundred and ten students across Primary 3–5 responded to four instruments measuring academic self-concept, alienation from school, teacher–students relationship, and social integration. The responses showed that, when studying the regular curriculum, students in the low-achievement group reported greater levels of alienation and lowest levels of social integration compared with students with the highest levels of achievement. On the other hand, low-achieving students who studied a differentiated curriculum reported affective and social outcomes more consistent with the responses from the high-achieving students. The results suggest that there is a mismatch between the aims and practice of the educational policy reflecting learner diversity and the cultural expectations of both parents and students.     

Home-based parental involvement amongst Pakistani families in Hong Kong

ABSTRACT

Ethnic minority parents often appear to be less involved in school functions and activities than their culturally dominant counterparts. Their invisibility is usually assumed due to a lack of either interest or parental capacity to oversee their children’s education. However, the simplistic equation between parental involvement in children’s education and their participation in school is largely informed by middle-class cultural norms that ignore diversity. Data drawn from home visits and in-depth, semi-structured interviews amongst Pakistani parents and children in Hong Kong reveals that the involvement of these parents only seems less visible because it is largely based at home rather than in schools. The parental involvement of this ethnic minority is influenced by socio-economic and cultural factors that separate school from home, divide parental responsibilities by gender, and set expectations for children with primary reference to the parents’ own experiences. These research findings on how such characteristics shape the outcomes of parental involvement can inform school practices to build more effective home-school collaboration and enhance children’s academic achievement.     

Preservice teachers’ attitudes,attributions, and stereotypes: Exploring the disadvantages of students from families with low socioeconomic status

In many educational systems, students from families with low socioeconomic status (SES) often score lower in academic achievement than their high SES peers. Even though this effect is well-documented and research on teachers’ stereotypical beliefs and attitudes is steadily increasing, the studies so far did not specifically focus on students’ SES. In the current study, we explored preservice teachers’ implicit attitudes and their stereotypical and prejudiced beliefs toward low SES students as well as their causal attributions for the low educational success of low SES students. Results showed that teachers had negative implicit attitudes toward low SES students and that they more strongly associated competences and good learning and working habits with high SES students. The correlations highlighted the role that stereotypes play in causal attributions. Participants who more strongly associated low SES with competence and good working and learning behaviors were less likely to endorse internal attributions but were more likely to emphasize external attributions. Hence, when preservice teachers see low SES students as having high ability, they also strongly view the educational system as a source of the disadvantages that low SES students experience in school.     

The involvement of Hong Kong parents in the education of their children: a validation of the Parents' Attributions and Perception Questionnaire

This study describes the validation and interpretation of the Parents' Attributions and Perception Questionnaire (PAPQ) using confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch modelling to report both the construct validity and category structure of the scales in the questionnaire. The PAPQ was developed to reflect the proposal that parents mediate the relationship between their children's social and psychological development, and their academic achievement, within the context of Hong Kong. The questionnaire consists of four subscales that reflect different interactions between parents and their children in relation to their children's academic‐related activities, including a Parental Attributions Scale, Parental Beliefs of Working Memory Scale, Parental Home and School Involvement Scale, and Parental Academic Expectations Scale. These subscales were supplemented by a fifth subscale that describes parents' socio‐economic background. The PAPQ was administered to 215 parents from four schools in Hong Kong. Results showed that the four subscales of the PAPQ are valid and reliable unidimensional measures of constructs related to parental role in the academic achievement of their children, thereby enabling future research to directly test Vygotsky's hypothesis.     

Single‐parent families: the role of parent’s and child’s gender on academic achievement

Using national survey data, the present study investigated whether adolescents living with parents of their same gender fare better on academic achievement than their peers living with opposite‐gender parents. Multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) procedures were employed to examine the effects of the children’s gender in single‐father and single‐mother families on students’ academic achievement, as measured by four dependent variables (reading test score, mathematics test score, English teachers’ evaluation, and mathematics teachers’ evaluation) while controlling the covariate, socioeconomic status. The results indicated that there were no benefits in same‐gender single‐parent households. Furthermore, daughters in single‐father homes performed better than other parent and child combinations on academic achievement. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

The interactive attribution of school success in multi-ethnic schools

The study shows how explanations for school success are expressed and dialogically constructed during teacher–parent conferences at school. Attribution theory is used to conceptualize the various explanations for school success that were expressed. However, instead of only looking at attributions as beliefs which individuals or groups ‘have’, the aim of this study is to show how attributions are part of co-constructed processes in which multiple partners impact upon each other’s attributions over the course of a conversation. The results indicated that in the conversations between teachers and minority parents, school performance is more often attributed to effort while in conversations with majority parents, psychological attributions were more common. Besides these differences in content, the process through which these accounts were constructed was different. While the diagnosis on what went wrong was more commonly constructed in case of the conversations with majority parents, they were more characterised by opposition or a passive position by the parent in case of the conversations with minority parents. The analyses show that instead of a simple mismatch between explanations of the home and the school, these explanations are interactionally co-constructed as both parents and teachers necessarily ‘re’-act on each other’s claims and understanding of school success. The results ultimately reveal how the interactive process impacted upon the construction of the attributions and the possibilities this creates for partnerships between parents and teachers to create an understanding of the child’s academic potential across home and school.     

Language Policy in British Colonial Education: Evidence from Nineteenth‐Century Hong Kong

This article examines the evolution of language‐in‐education policy in Hong Kong during the first six decades of British rule (1842–1902). In particular, it analyses the changing roles and status of the English and Chinese languages during this formative period in the development of the colony’s education system. The textual and statistical data presented in the article provide a corrective to the claim that the British imposed English on their colonial subjects and in the process rode roughshod over the indigenous languages. The evidence suggests that Hong Kong’s education system provided opportunities for native students to attend purely Chinese schools, purely English schools or mixed‐medium schools. Although the British apparently attached more importance to English teaching, they were generally at pains to emphasise that English should not be studied at the expense of Chinese. The findings indicate that language policy (be it Chinese or English in orientation) was always tied in some way to Britain’s political and economic interests in the region.     

A Parental perspective of school and familial curriculum making: a narrative inquiry of early childhood education planning in Hong Kong

This paper examines the early childhood context of Hong Kong (HK) which is characterised by an entirely privatised system. The level of knowledge a child possesses in early childhood can be a determining factor in their admission into desirable kindergartens or primary schools. Given HK’s privatised early childhood education system, the quality of a child’s learning is directly tied to the education services their parents provide independently or can afford financially. The study reported in this paper adopts a narrative inquiry approach to an under-researched area of early childhood education, namely the voices of parents within home learning environments and how the lengths they go to provide their children with a quality education.     

The Effect of Teachers’ Evaluative Feedback on Chinese Students’ Perception of Ability: a cultural and situational analysis

The research explored the effect of teachers’ evaluative feedback on students’ perception of ability. The subjects were 758 Chinese students from elementary schools, high schools, and a university in Hong Kong. Subjects rated ability and effort of two hypothetical students who achieved identical results (success or failure) in a mathematics test but received different feedback (praise, blame, or neutral feedback) from the teacher. They also rated the teacher's perception of their own and their friends’ ability and effort in a similar situation after a real mathematics test. The results of this study support previous findings which indicate that ability perception is influenced by cultural and contextual variables. Contrary to the findings with Western students, ability and effort were positively correlated. The importance of effort among the Chinese students appears to mitigate the effects of teachers’ feedback on students’ ability. Age‐related differences were also observed. The results are discussed in terms of sociocultural background of the subjects.     

Enhancing parent-child relationship through dialogic reading

Dialogic reading (DR) has been identified as an effective strategy for enhancing children’s literacy skills in Western and Asian contexts. Given that storytelling is a shared experience between adults and children, parent–child relationships is hypothesised to be enhanced by DR. Despite this possibility, there has been no systematic attempt to examine the possible impacts of DR on the parent–child relationship. This study bridges this gap in the literature by studying the relationship between adults and children before and after training in the practice of dialogic reading techniques. Forty-eight Cantonese-speaking parents with children aged between 3 and 12 were recruited from schools. They were assessed prior to and after undergoing a four-hour dialogic reading training programme with a two-hour follow-up session using the Parent–Child Relationship Inventory. The results of this study suggest that DR has considerable potential for improving parent–child relationships. The findings are discussed in relation to the situation of Chinese learners in the Hong Kong context.