Whitehead and a new look at teaching elementary science

If Whitehead is right, science teachers who try to increase student interest by making the science they teach more pure and by covering more material are going about their work in just the wrong way. Science, for purposes of precision in measurement, translates the dynamic world of feeling and force, of causal efficacy (for example, the San Francisco earthquake), into a static representation spatialized and given presentational immediacy (for example, the Richter scale). But notice that the Richter scale isn't very interesting (even as abstract art) apart from its connection, via symbolic reference, to the earthquake. Such reference is essential to give both a sense of reality and a feeling of interes to the subject, but it makes the science less pure, and it takes more time to cover the material. An example of teaching pure and impure formal logic is given as a case study.     

The applicability of democratic principles and the mission of the university

The university's mission of serving as a fortress for freedom of speech, inquiry, and criticism of established truths is inextricably connected with democracy. Such a mission can be pursued only in a climate of genuine political and academic freedom. Three other aspects of democracy in the university are discussed: equality of access, university governance, and the public utility of the university. It is argued that equal representation or one man one vote cannot be applied in university governance because it comes into conflict with the notion of competence—a conflict that cannot be resolved by taking votes. Interest groups inside and outside of the university cannot be allowed to interfere with the free pursuit of knowledge. The internal audit, that is, peer review (by, ultimately, the international community of scholars) has to take precedence over vertical review by government bureaucracy.     

Student learning work: Grounds for anin situ analysis

The ethnomethodological programme of studies of work is drawn on to provide a general framework within which we might develop ways to undertake thein situ analysis of the competencies which constitute student learning activities. The objective of such research is to describe the locally managed and temporally organised nature of student learning work. Emphasis is placed on the development of methods of investigation which will enable us to describe the whatness of the work from within the setting of that work's accomplishment. The twin conceptions of the visibility and sequential order of student activities are discussed in detail. The implications of this approach for the notion of student learning are also examined.     

Classroom control: Some cybernetic comments on the possible and the impossible

The application of basic cybernetic laws and information processing principles to the classroom situation suggests that traditional and modern teaching methods, regarded as control systems, are equivalent in terms of efficiency. As control structures, they embody different principles and are not decomposable. Examination of these principles reveals that the two methods are radically incompatible, in the sense that techniques developed in the one cannot be transferred to the other without dislocation of the system as a whole. Attempts to modernize the traditional method, or to formalize the modern method are ill-conceived. Such mixed methods violate basic laws of information and control, and cannot work. It is suggested that many of the problems underlying the Great Education Debate are a consequence of the impossible state of affairs created by the widespread introduction of mixed methods.     

Different aspects in designing mathematics education: Three examples from the Freudenthal Institute

Three teaching designs are offered. They were developed for 12 to 16 year old pupils taking into account their personal differences in terms of gender (in Making Up the Cube), culture (in Mecca), knowledge, and use of calculators in The integrating calculator. The designs concern the representation of three-dimensional objects in the plane, directions and great circles on the sphere, and exploration of the integrating calculator.     

Certifying effect and consumer effect: Some remarks on strategies employed by higher education institutions

The term certification, as used in discussions concerning higher education, is clarified and a distinction made between terminal awards which do have a genuine certifying effect in the sense of procuring admission to a profession and those which do not. Institutions wishing to increase the value of the certifying effect of their awards, seek to do this by stimulating applications for entry to their institution. The longer the queue at the gate the greater the prestige of the terminal award. The ability to influence the certifying effect of an award does not, however, lie with the teaching institutions alone; business, the employers and the professions can, and increasingly do, determine the relative value of awards and of different ways of preparing for the exercise of a particular profession. The case of the business schools in France is described to illustrate how teaching institutions once they are established seek to increase the certifying effect of the diplomas they award by actually reducing the number of graduates. The numerus clausus, as applied to medical schools, provides another example of the same phenomenon. Such strategies lead to what the author describes as consumer effect. Once admittance to a prestige institution has been gained, entry to a position of influence and possibly affluence, is more or less assured. Students in such institutions, in both capitalist and communist countries, have exploited this by persuading teaching staff to acquiesce in a reduction of the demands made by the course, though some directors of institutions have begun to respond by failing more students, seeking to re-establish positions surrendered in the days of student unrest and by these and other means seeking to reduce consumer effect. Teacher training colleges provide an interesting example of institutions having a low but certain certifying effect, producing a high consumer effect. The possibility of deriving a general theory from the proposition put forward in the article is discussed.This is an improved version of an article published earlier in French: Effet certifiant et effet clientèle. Quelques remarques sur les stratégies des institutions d'enseignement supérieur dans les pays développés, ESPRIT, nov./dec. 1978. Translation: Sylvia Collot.     

Educational language planning and linguistic identity

There are cases in which a high form of a language is taught and used in formal situations, but linguistic variation is also caused by geography, ethnicity and socioeconomic class. Certain variants are regarded as inferior and restricted in expressive capacity, and are disadvantageous. The paper suggests that it is possible to map each person's linguistic identity in two dimensions: the number of languages spoken, and the situation-specific variants of each language. Further, it is argued that the distance between a low variant and a high standard form of a language may present to the low learner of a standardized mother tongue a barrier just as great as that posed by the learning of a related foreign language to a speaker of the high variant. It is proposed that greater tolerance be exercised in acceptance of variation and in recognition of linguistic identity, so that this can be built on in the necessary and desirable expansion of linguistic competence, rather than being devalued. The relevance of the communicative approach to language teaching is touched on.

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Zusammenfassung Es gibt Fälle, in denen eine hohe Form einer Sprache gelehrt und in formellen Situationen gebraucht wird, aber linguistische Veränderungen werden auch durch Geographie, ethnische Identität und sozialkonomische Klassen hervorgerufen. Gewsse Varianten gelten hinsichtlich ihres Ausdrucksvermögens als unterlegen und restriktiv und sind unvorteilhaft. In dem Artikel wird vorgeschlagen, die linguistische Identität jedes Einzelnen in zwei Dimensionen darzustellen: die Anzahl der gesprochenen Sprachen und die situationsspezifische Variante jeder Sprache. Weiterhin wird argumentiert, daß die Distanz zwischen einer niedrigen Variante und einer hohen Standardform einer Sprache für den niedrigen Lernenden einer standardisierten Muttersprache ebenso schwierig ist wie das Erlernen einer verwandten ausländischen Sprache für denjenigen, der die hohe Form spricht. Es wird vorgeschlagen, größere Toleranz durch Akzeptieren der Variation und Anerkennung der linguistischen Identität zu üben, so daß man darauf die notwendige und wünschenswerte Erweiterung der linguistischen Fähigkeit aufbauen kann anstatt sie zu entwerten. Die Relevanz des kommunikativen Ansatzes zum Unterrichten einer Sprache wird kurz behandelt.

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Résumé Il existe des cas où une haute forme d'une langue est enseignée et utilisée dans des situations formelles, mais la différentiation est causée également par la géographie, l'ethnicité et la classe socioéconomique. Certaines variantes sont considérées inférieures, d'une capacité expressive limitée, et sont désavantageuses. L'article suggère qu'il est possible de tracer l'identité linguistique de chacun dans deux dimensions: le nombre de langues parlées, et les variantes de chaque langue reliées à des situations spécifiques. En plus, on raisonne que la distance entre une variante basse d'une langue et la haute forme standard peut présenter à l'apprenant, ayant la forme basse d'une langue maternelle standardisée, une barrière aussi grande que celle qui se dresse devant celui qui parle la variante haute et qui apprend une langue étrangère apparentée. On propose donc qu'une tolérance plus large soit exercée en acceptant la variation et en reconnaissant l'identité linguistique, afin que cette dernière serve de fondation pour l'élargissement nécessaire et souhaitable des compétences linguistiques, plutôt que d'être dévalorisée. La relevance de l'approche communicative à l'enseignement des langues est mentionnée.

     

Frequency norms and structural analysis of algebra story problems into families,categories, and templates

The goal of this study was to develop a framework for classifying algebra story problems and to determine observed frequencies for each problem type. A total of 1097 algebra story problems were selected from ten standard algebra textbooks. These are divided into eight families based on the nature of the source formula involved; for example, nearly 300 problems were classified in the time rate family because they were based on the source formula, distance = rate x time or output = rate x time. Each family was divided into problem categories based on the general form of the story line; for example, the time rate family consisted of motion, current, and work categories. Each category was divided into templates based on the specific propositional structure of the problem; for example, there were a dozen templates for motion problems such as overtake, closure, round trip, etc. This article describes the procedure for generating families, categories, and templates and provides frequency counts for each observed template. Implications for fostering productive research and instruction are discussed.This research was supported by grant NIE-G-78-0162 from the National Institute of Education. Requests for reprints should be sent to: Richard E. Mayer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106.     

The correlation between education and earnings - a comment

In this note, Blaug's article in Volume 1, No. 1, is criticised on the grounds that the economic interpretation of the correlation between education and earnings is based on a mistaken view about the nature of capital; and hence human capital theories are logically incoherent.     

Training,stability and control

This paper presents a system-theoretic approach to the analysis of the problem of training formally relating it to the control of an abstract dynamic system, the adaption automaton of the trainee. The utility of this formulation and the possibility of basing real training strategies upon it are discussed, and it is argued that further constraints upon the automaton are both necessary, and available, in so far as the theory corresponds to practical reality. The minimal constraints generate an extended theory in which training is related to the stability of the adaption automaton. More practical constraints lead to theoretical foundations for strategies of feedback or adaptive training. Corresponding to each set of constraints a training theorem is proved which demonstrates that the constraint is adequate to lead to a simple universal training strategy.Although this paper is highly theoretical it is argued that the formal concepts introduced correspond to intuitive models of the phenomena of learning and training which are implicit in the design of many training systems. It is hoped that the formal analysis will throw new light on these implicit assumptions and help to clarify discussion of practical approaches to training, including the possibility of computer-aided instruction given on our present level of knowledge of human cognitive skills or individual students.     

A qualitative review of study behaviour before and during the first year of engineering studies

A review of the study behaviour of first-year Engineering students was undertaken in order to investigate two sets of influencing factors. The first part of the study reviewed these students' selfreported retrospective study behaviour in the context of secondary school Science, while the second part focused on their approaches to the study of Applied Mechanics as a core undergraduate degree course. Utilising qualitative interview data as the source of evidence, the study highlights the following important conclusions: (1) some traditional first-year students embark on their studies as much at risk academically as their nontradition counterparts; (2) many first-year Engineering students encounter workload pressures which lead to their adopting increasingly strategic approaches to their studies in individual courses; (3) the complex, qualitatively different learning needs of these students make it exceedingly difficult to design teaching programmes which will appropriately address these learning needs. The study suggests that these conclusions cannot, in spite of these difficulties, simply be ignored in the hope that they will resolve themselves.     

Books and babies

One of the most satisfying forms of verbal communication between child and adult is that magical moment of being read to. Read me a story is the preschooler's frequent refrain, and even the youngest toddler will manage self and book into the cozy lap of a willing adult.Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Nuba-Scheffler, Hannah, Sheiman, Deborah Lovitky, & Watkins, Kathleen Pullan, INFANCY: A GUIDE TO RESEARCH & RESOURCES. (New York: Teachers College Press, © 1986 by Hannah Nuba-Scheffler, Deborah Lovitky Sheiman, & Kathleen Pullan Watkins. All rights reserved.), pp. 143–154.     

The Frontier of Web-based Instruction

In spite of advances in course design software and experience with online offerings, the question of how web-based education affects teaching and learning remains largely unanswered, and the terrain of online learning remains largely unmapped. In this paper, through the stories of 10 faculties of education and one computer science instructor in Ontario, we map out a small piece of the frontier of web-based course delivery and plot a course for future exploration. We argue that most existing offerings take the form of a Lone Ranger or Greenhorn approach but that there is a need to move toward a strategic institutional Wagon Train approach that consolidates and integrates support for online teaching and learning. We argue, as well, that failures in online instruction cannot simply be attributed to improper instruction or inappropriate course design. Rather, at least part of the problem locates in the ways in which conversation is structured in the online environment.     

The non-education of Kurds: A Kurdish perspective

Educational provision in Kurdistan (embracing parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) violates most of the language-in-education requirements of international law. The same is true for Kurds in diaspora in most parts of the world. Linguistic and cultural genocide is attempted, with the tacit complicity of the West. The future of Kurdish education depends to a large extent on the political situation in the Middle East. Political solutions are needed before educational problems can be tackled. Within international law, a new interpretation by the UN Human Rights Committee of Article 27 in the International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights (UN 1986) might give grounds for hope for the future.

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Zusammenfassung Bildungsmöglichkeiten in Kurdistan (einschließlich Teilen Irans, Iraks, Syriens und der Türkei) entsprechen nicht den internationalen Forderungen zur Sprachpolitik in der Bildung. Das gleiche gilt für Diaspora Kurden in den meisten Teilen der Welt. Mit stillschweigender Übereinkunft des Westen wird der linguistische und kulturelle Massenmord angestrebt. Die Zukunft der kurdischen Bildung hängt größtenteils von der politischen Situation im mittleren Osten ab. Bevor jedoch das Bildungsproblem gelöst werden kann, braucht man politische Lösungen. Innerhalb des internationalen Gesetzes könnte eine neue Auslegung des Artikel 27 im Internationalen Convent über zivile und politische Rechte (UN 1968) durch das Menschenrechtskommittee der Vereinten Nationen Hoffnung für die Zukunft bringen.

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Resumen La educación prestada en Kurdistán (que comprende partes de Irán, Iraq, Siria y Turquía) viola la mayor parte de las exigencias que el derecho internacional establece en cuanto a la educación en la lengua correspondiente del individuo. Esto también rige para los kurdos, que se encuentran en la diáspora, en muchas partes del mundo. Con ello se intenta un genocidio cultural, con la complicidad tácita del mundo occidental. El futuro de la educación kurda depende en gran medida de la situación política de Oriente Medio. Se requieren soluciones políticas que permitan abordar los problemas de la educación, Dentro del derecho internacional, puede dar lugar a esperanzas una nueva interpretación que el Comité de Derechos Ilumanos de las Naciones Unidas hizo del artículo 27 en el Convenio Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos (UN 1986).

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Résumé Les formes d'enseignement dispensé au Kurdistan (partagé entre l'Iran, l'Iraq, la Syrie et al Turquie) violent la plupart des exigences envers les langues dans l'enseignement établies par le droit international. La même constatation est valable pour la diaspora kurde disséminée sur la quasi-totalité de la planète. Il ya a en fait tentative de génocide linguistique et culturel, avec la complicité tacite de l'Occident. L'avenir de l'éducation kurde dépendant dans une large mesure de la situation politique au Moyen-Orient, les problèmes pédagogiques ne peuvent être abordés que si la situation politique est résolue. Dans le adre du droit international, une nouvelle interprétation de l'article 27 de la Convention internationale des droits civils et politiques par le Comité des droits de l'hommes (ONU 1986) pourrait donner un nouvel espoir pour l'avenir.

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Emigration,internationalization, and “brain drain”: Propensities among British Academics

This research links two important higher education phenomena: potential brain drain among academics abroad and the U.S. academic labor market. The inquiry draws on the brain drain literature and is grounded primarily on a secondary analysis of a major survey (1989) of British university and polytechnic faculty members. The anlaysis shows that fully 40.0 percent of university faculty are seriously considering a move abroad with the substantial majority favoring the United States as a destination. Faculty characteristics—including academic field, research versus teaching orientation, rank, age, gender, and political identification—are correlated with faculty members' professed interest in emigration. The analysis also compares (former) polytechnic to university faculty as well as to a subset of Oxford and Cambridge faculty.     

Assessing the Nature of Science: What is the Nature of Our Assessments?

This paper discusses the nature of the instruments used to assess students' and teachers' conceptions of the nature of science during the last four decades. Two salient points emerge from critically reviewing the various research emphases and associated assessment instruments specifically related to the nature of science. The first is to question the validity of much of the research presented on the grounds that (a) assessment instruments are interpreted in a biased manner, and (b) some assessment instruments appear to be poorly constructed. Although such comments are well founded, it is important to note that the research conclusions were unusually uniform regardless of the particular instrument used in an investigation. The second point is a more critical concern about the traditional paper and pencil approach to the assessment of an individual's understanding of the nature of science. Although not a new insight, discrepancies between the interpretation of a written response to a traditional instrument (e.g., multiple choice assessment) and the intent of the respondent have been well documented. It is suggested that the current educational research shift toward more qualitative, open-ended approaches to assessment of individuals' understanding (of any concept) be applied to the assessment of individuals' nature of science conceptions.     

Legal Notes When May a College Regulate an Instructor's In-Class Speech? Recent Guidance from the Sixth Circuit

In a recent opinion, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a community college instructor has a constitutional right to utilize the words nigger and bitch in the context of a classroom discussion in a course on interpersonal relations. This article discusses this case in the context of other court decisions concerning a college's right to regulate an instructor's classroom speech. Implications for personnel evaluation in the higher education setting are discussed.     

A Textbook Case of the Nature of Science: Laws and Theories in the Science of Biology

The two concepts law and theory are among the most important elements of the nature of science. They represent both the tools and products of science itself. Unfortunately, the variable meanings and use of these terms in general discourse and in other school disciplines results in much confusion with respect to their proper application in a science context. The project included the design of a six-part model definition for law and theory based on a review of the literature of the philosophy of science with special reference to biology. These model definitions were then compared with those provided in a range of U.S. secondary school biology textbooks. The majority of all current major U.S. secondary school biology texts were reviewed and analyzed with respect to how the concepts of law and theory were defined and applied, in an attempt to determine whether students and teachers using such texts would gain an accurate impression of these terms and the distinction between them. This study focuses on biology instruction since a life science course is completed as a graduation requirement by virtually all U.S. high school students and as such serves as a widely shared educational experience across the nation. The term law is rarely defined in any text but various laws such as those found in genetics are frequently included as examples. The term theory is frequently defined but with a wide range of completeness of the definitions. Only rarely are theories in biology included as examples.     

Jack in two boxes: A postmodern perspective on the transformation of persons into portraits

The paper explores issues surrounding portrayal in educational research and interrogates the notion of a life as a textual product, via an analysis of two short biographical narratives which happen to portray the same person — a British primary school head teacher nearing the end of his career. The discrepancies between these two texts point to the problematic nature of the relationship between person and portrait, and make visible some of the textual devices that writers/researchers use in order to achieve coherence and authenticity in biographical narratives.     

The meaning of response categories: How often is “occasionally,” “often,” and “very often”?

Samples of undergraduates from 30 colleges and universities responded in two ways to statements about how often they had engaged in various activities: first by indicating never, occasionally, often, or very often, and second by indicating the number of times they had engaged in the activity. Comparisons of the two sets of responses indicates that: (1) there are wide individual differences in the meaning attributed to each response category; (2) despite individual differences, the group data show clear modal differences between occasionally and often and between often and very often; (3) the median difference in the meaning of each of the response categories is very small between one institution and the next and between types of institutions; and (4) based on the present data, there is no compelling need to develop separate norms for different types of institutions.Presented at the 1981 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 13–17, Los Angeles.