Role and function of school psychologists, 1992–93: A comparative study

The roles and functions of 52 school psychologists from Iowa and Tennessee were examined. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test differences between reported time spent on prereferral, assessment, intervention, consultation, and curriculum-based assessment. Significant differences were found for the time spent in all areas. A second one-way MANOVA was used to test the differences between the two groups in reported actual time spent and desired time spent. A significant difference was found for consultation. A third MANOVA was utilized to test the differences between the two groups' desired time spent on the five variables. A significant difference was found for curriculum-based assessment. The results suggest that school psychologists in Tennessee and Iowa occupy different roles. School psychologists in Tennessee reported spending the majority of their time on assessment activities, whereas the Iowa sample balances their time between the five functions. The Iowa role exemplifies alternative functions for school psychologists. The Tennessee role is oriented more toward the refer, test, place model.     

Actual/Desired role functioning,perceived control over role functioning,and job satisfaction among school psychologists

This study utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and a demographic data form to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and actual/desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning among a population of school psychologists. Results indicated that school psychologists spend more time in assessment activities than they desire to and less time in consultation, counseling, and research than they desire to. Both discrepancy between actual and desired role functioning and perceived control over role functioning were found to be significantly associated with job satisfaction. Role function and perceived control variables combined accounted for almost half of the job satisfaction variance. Four role function variables emerged as significant predictors of job satisfaction: discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in assessment, discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in clerical activities, actual time spent in research, and discrepancy between actual and desired time spent in research. Results are discussed in terms of their practical significance for practicing school psychologists.     

Consistency of administrators' and psychologists' actual and ideal perceptions of school psychologists' activities

Questionnaires asking for actual and ideal perceptions of the role of the school psychologist were completed by 80 school psychologists, 37 directors of pupil personnel services, and 29 superintendents in Virginia public schools. Administrators and school psychologists are in substantial agreement regarding the amount of time the psychologist actually devotes to different job activities. Approximately 75% of the psychologist's time is spent in Meyers' Level I activities (Meyers, 1973). All groups desire a reduction in the time spent in assessment, but they differ as to what intervention levels should be increased. Psychologists see the saved time most appropriately spent in interventions at the system level. Discrepancy between actual and desired roles is discussed in terms of the impact of P.L. 94–142. The consistency of psychologists' actual and ideal perceptions correlated significantly and negatively with their job satisfaction. This relationship is discussed in terms of role conflict, and a comparison is made of actual roles with the emphasis in two professional journals.     

Consultation in school psychology: Changes from 1981 to 1984

In order to assess changes in consultation activities by practicing school psychologists, questionnaires were sent to a nationwide sample of practitioners engaging in consultation on a regular basis. Responses were received from 225 school psychologists, for a return rate of 58%. These responses were compared to their previous responses in 181-82 and revealed a significant increase in both the actual amount of time spent in consultation and the amount of time desired for consultation. School psychologist to student ratio was significantly lower, as was overall satisfaction with the profession, compared to the 1981-82 results. Sex differences were found for perceived competency in teacher consultation. The results and their implications for the field of school psychology are discussed.     

Behavioral objectives for psychological consultation in the school as evaluated by teachers and school psychologists

A set of behavioral objectives was developed for the consultant role of the school psychologist, based on Meyers' consultation model. A Likert-type questionnaire was developed to assess the degree to which teachers and school psychologists agreed upon the desirability and the actual accomplishment of these objectives. Based on a sample of 120 teachers and 83 school psychologists, it was found that both groups perceived a difference between the “desired” role and the role that school psychologists actually fulfill. However, there were also significant differences between teachers' and school psychologists' rating of the “actual” role, the school psychologists' rating agreeing more with the consultation model. Examination of individual items showed greater acceptance of objectives relating to Meyers' level of indirect service to the child, and less acceptance of Meyers' levels of direct service to the teacher and service to the school system.     

Comparing preservice,elementary, and junior high teachers' perceptions of school psychologists: Two decades later

One hundred eighty-one experienced teachers (elementary and junior high), and 189 preservice teachers were surveyed regarding their perceptions of school psychologists. The survey instrument used essentially the same categories as Styles in 1965, including: (a) level of training, (b) effectiveness, (c) qualifications for tasks, and (d) usefulness in specific duties. Analysis of the survey data showed there were significant differences between preservice and experienced teachers' effectiveness ratings of school psychologists on eight tasks typically performed by school psychologists. Significant differences also were found between preservice and experienced teachers on their ratings of school psychologists' qualifications to undertake specific tasks, although almost half of the experienced teachers were unable to rate the effectiveness of school psychologists. There was a small, but significant, negative relationship between the amount of contact with the school psychologist and the perceived effectiveness. Limitations inherent in survey methodology and the need to foster greater teacher awareness of the school psychologist's role are discussed.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN WRITTEN EXPRESSION CURRICULUM‐BASED MEASUREMENT IN THIRD‐ THROUGH EIGHTH‐GRADE STUDENTS

Many studies have found gender differences in certain areas of academic achievement, such as reading and math. Fewer studies have examined gender disparities in writing skills. The current study explored gender differences in written expression performance. Participants were 1,240 male and female students in third through eighth grade, representing five schools in a rural southeastern school district. Each student was administered an AIMSweb curriculum‐based measurement writing probe during the district's regularly scheduled fall, winter, and spring benchmarks. All measures were scored for total words written and correct writing sequences. Two‐way repeated measures analyses of variance were used to determine whether differences existed in the sample. A significant female advantage was found on both scoring indices at each grade level. These findings have strong instructional and theoretical implications for practicing school psychologists and other educators.     

Improving the implementation of educational change

In the academic year 1987–1988 24 primary school Headteachers were interviewed about the appraisal of their managerial performance. In the course of the interviews the Heads discussed their perceptions of their jobs and what they perceived as the changing nature of their roles. They felt under considerable pressure to focus on the administrative and managerial aspects of headship and to reduce the time they spent in teaching. There was evidence that they found the non‐teaching tasks were increasing markedly in recent years in primary schools. They did not, however, appear to consider delegation of these tasks to other staff to be an appropriate strategy. This paper then goes on to consider issues surrounding delegation and collegial structures and makes recommendations about levels of consultation in primary schools.     

Does the gender of the teacher matter in the teaching of reading literacy? Teacher gender and pupil attainment in reading literacy in Hong Kong

A study of 148 primary school teachers and 4867 Grade 4 pupils in Hong Kong found no support for the proposal that boys learn to read better when taught by men teachers. In fact, it was found that both boys and girls learnt better when taught by women. Responses to a teacher questionnaire indicate significant differences in the preferred patterns of teaching favoured by male and female teachers. Responses from men teachers suggest they are more authoritarian, prefer to control pupils' learning, engage pupils in whole-class reading and like to read passages aloud while pupils follow the text. Responses from women teachers suggest they prefer to teach reading in groups, to group pupils according to reading ability, set tasks that suit pupils' stage of learning, allocate more time for pupils to read books and use the school library and encourage pupils to discover for themselves the meaning of new vocabulary encountered in text. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Processes of decision-making in small learning groups

This article focuses on possible interactions of students’ inter-individual differences and features of cooperative learning. In a first study the uncertainty- vs. certainty-orientation of 209 students (88 male, 121 female; age 13–14) in nine classrooms (8th grade) of two schools was assessed. Three uncertainty-oriented and three certainty-oriented students were selected in each classroom. In varying sequences they solved three tasks (subject matter: German, social studies, mathematics) first individually, than in orientation-homogeneous groups of three. While there were almost no differences in decision-making between uncertainty-oriented vs. certainty-oriented learners during individual sessions, learning in small groups instigated significant differences. These differences diminished with an increased structure/certainty of learning tasks. In a second study 138 students (52 female, 86 male) in all 12th grade classrooms of three schools learned for six weeks according to a modified ‘Jigsaw Puzzle Technique’. At one of the schools the teachers did not implement the cooperative model completely, but tried to stay ‘in control’. This had consequences for the study’s ability to observe students in situations of uncertain and certain learning tasks, but the researchers were able to include this school for testing critical variables.     

Which Type of Inquiry Project Do High School Biology Students Prefer: Open or Guided?

In teaching inquiry to high school students, educators differ on which method of teaching inquiry is more effective: Guided or open inquiry? This paper examines the influence of these two different inquiry learning approaches on the attitudes of Israeli high school biology students toward their inquiry project. The results showed significant differences between the two groups: Open inquiry students were more satisfied and felt they gained benefits from implementing the project to a greater extent than guided inquiry students. On the other hand, regarding documentation throughout the project, guided inquiry students believed that they conducted more documentation, as compared to their open inquiry peers. No significant differences were found regarding ??the investment of time??, but significant differences were found in the time invested and difficulties which arose concerning the different stages of the inquiry process: Open inquiry students believed they spent more time in the first stages of the project, while guided inquiry students believed they spent more time in writing the final paper. In addition, other differences were found: Open inquiry students felt more involved in their project, and felt a greater sense of cooperation with others, in comparison to guided inquiry students. These findings may help teachers who hesitate to teach open inquiry to implement this method of inquiry; or at least provide their students with the opportunity to be more involved in inquiry projects, and ultimately provide their students with more autonomy, high-order thinking, and a deeper understanding in performing science.     

The Likelihood of Use of Social Power Strategies by School Psychologists When Consulting With Teachers

The Interpersonal Power Inventory (IPI) has been applied previously to investigate school psychologists engaged in problem-solving consultation with teachers concerning students having various learning and adjustment problems. Relevant prior findings include (a) consultants and teachers both perceive soft power strategies as more effective than harsh power strategies when consultants are attempting to influence teachers who are described as initially reluctant to comply with requests, and (b) compared with male consultants, female consultants view soft power strategies as more effective. Moving away from judgments of perceived effectiveness, this study investigated the likelihood of use of specific power strategies by school psychologists when consulting with teachers. It was hypothesized that (a) psychologists overall would report a greater likelihood of using soft versus harsh power strategies, (b) female psychologists would report a greater likelihood of using soft power strategies than male psychologists, and (c) psychologists overall would report a greater likelihood of using direct informational, positive expert, and positive referent power versus the remaining eight power strategies measured by the IPI. A U.S. sample of 352 school psychologists (71% female) completed a version of the IPI modified to examine likelihood of use. The first hypothesis received strong support; the second, no support; and the third, moderate support.     

Gender,marital status,and support systems of public school principals

Recent literature on leadership emphasizes the importance of support systems for individuals occupying prominent roles. This research examined the support systems of public school principals, comparing male and female and married and unmarried principals. Specifically, who provided support and the amount and type of support provided were examined. Specific characteristics of spouses who provide support were also explored. Drawing on surveys of over 170 principals from one southeastern state, the study found some significant differences and interesting similarities in the type and amount of support provided to male and female and married and unmarried principals. The findings differed from some of the literature on female principals in terms of the areas of similarity between males and females. Other findings generally supported the literature on support systems.     

Gender in Primary and Secondary Education: a handbook for policymakers and other stakeholders by Ramya Subrahmanian,London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007

Abstract

According to the literature on school effectiveness and school improvement and the role of the school principal in this regard, the lack of time management skills and abilities among school principals can be regarded as one of the main factors that lead to principal inefficiency and ineffectiveness in the school context. But, how do male and female principals compare in terms of time management and how does gender influence one's decision-making skills in relation to time management? It is clear from the literature that no research has been conducted locally with regard to possible differences in the time management skills and abilities of male and female principals and on the problems that they experience in this regard. This article, based on an empirical study of the perceived differences between male and female principals’ time management skills and abilities in selected Gauteng schools, gives an indication of how both male and female principals rate themselves in terms of their own time management skills and abilities. The findings show that male principals have less effective time management skills and abilities as compared to their female counterparts. In the end, the study would recommend that both male and female principals should set their own priorities and devote sufficient time to these priorities so as to enable them to manage their time more effectively and efficiently in the school context.     

The Blueprint I revisited: Training and practice in school psychology

In 1984, the National School Psychology Inservice Training Network (NSPITN) published School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice (Blueprint I), which recognized that America's public schools were troubled and focused on how school psychology could help with a transformation; the role of school psychologists was divided into 16 practice domains. In 1997, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) published a successor, School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II (Blueprint II), which credits the first edition with having “driven much of the progress in school psychology.” To better understand the impact of the Blueprint I, this study analyzes responses from Nebraska and Iowa school psychologists about it, finding that doctoral-level respondents believed that they were more competently trained than subdoctoral school psychologists in the research domain; quality of training was rated higher by respondents receiving degrees after 1984 in class management, classroom organization and social structures, interpersonal communication and consultation, legal/ethical and professional issues, multicultural concerns, parental involvement, research, and systems development and planning. Analyses revealed numerous areas of congruence and dissonance between training and practice. Respondents reported a preference to decrease the amount of time spent in assessment and increase the time spent in all other domains (except basic academic skills). The relevance to the Blueprint II and the implications for school psychology training and practices are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Differentiating the Sources of Taiwanese High School Students’ Multidimensional Science Learning Self-Efficacy: An Examination of Gender Differences

The main purpose of this study was to investigate Taiwanese high school students’ multi-dimensional self-efficacy and its sources in the domain of science. Two instruments, Sources of Science Learning Self-Efficacy (SSLSE) and Science Learning Self-Efficacy (SLSE), were used. By means of correlation and regression analyses, the relationships between students’ science learning self-efficacy and the sources of their science learning self-efficacy were examined. The findings revealed that the four sources of the students’ self-efficacy were found to play significant roles in their science learning self-efficacy. By and large, Mastery Experience and Vicarious Experience were found to be the two salient influencing sources. Several gender differences were also revealed. For example, the female students regarded Social Persuasion as the most influential source in the “Science Communication” dimension, while the male students considered Vicarious Experience as the main efficacy source. Physiological and Affective States, in particular, was a crucial antecedent of the female students’ various SLSE dimensions, including “Conceptual Understanding,” “Higher-Order Cognitive Skills,” and “Science Communication.” In addition, the variations between male and female students’ responses to both instruments were also unraveled. The results suggest that, first, the male students perceived themselves as having more mastery experience, vicarious experience and social persuasion than their female counterparts. Meanwhile, the female students experienced more negative emotional arousal than the male students. Additionally, the male students were more self-efficacious than the females in the five SLSE dimensions of “Conceptual Understanding,” “Higher-Order Cognitive Skills,” “Practical Work,” “Everyday Application,” and “Science Communication.”     

School psychologists' involvement in special education due process hearings

A sample of practicing school psychologists was surveyed regarding their experiences with and views of the due process hearing system. Thirty‐eight percent of those surveyed reported that they had been called upon to testify at one or more due process hearings. Of those who had testified they reported that they were on the stand for an average of approximately 1 hour and that they spent an average of 7.5 hours in preparation. Most common issues on which school psychologists testified were assessment and appropriateness of placement. Both schools and parents were represented by attorneys in 70% of the hearings. Parents requested the hearing 72% of the time but prevailed in only 32% of the hearings. Respondents indicated that they agreed that their hearings had been conducted in a largely professional and fair manner. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

ISSUES IN COUNSELING OLDER PEOPLE

This paper reports a thorough investigation of reading habits and activities which may require skills used in prose recall tasks as they occur in the everyday lives of adults. Over the space of five weeks, fifty‐four participants (18 young, aged 18‐32; 18 middle, aged 40‐54; 18 older, aged over 62) kept structured diaries in which they indicated how they spent their time, as well as the specific materials they had read and how long they had spent reading each item. Analyses were performed on each of 23 reading variables and 20 activity variables. Part I of this paper considers whether there were age and vocabulary differences in activities. Results indicate that while such differences exist, primarily in the amount of time spent reading, everyday activities and reading habits were also related to the requirements of daily life‐‐school, employment, retirement. Part II uses a cluster analysis of the data to demonstrate that the patterning of everyday activities was influenced more by current schooling and career factors than by the age and vocabulary level of the participants. Part II also considers the ecological validity of prose recall studies by examining the frequency of activities similar to laboratory‐style prose recall tasks and finds that such activities have a very low incidence in the everyday lives of adults.     

对中学生自我意识发展水平的调查分析

采用调查与测量的方法对1989名中学生自我意识的发展状况做了概括的描述,同时对初中、高中男女不同性别和城乡中学生在自我意识发展水平上的差异进行了比较分析,提出在中学生自我意识的发展过程中,高一到高二是一个重要的转折期,高中学生自我意识发展水平明显高于初中学生,男生自我评价的水平明显高于女生,城市学生的自信心水平明显高于农村学生等结论。