Professions in organizations,professional work in education

Professions are occupational arrangements for dealing with human problems. Professional ‘people work’ requires a certain interactive closeness; face‐to‐face communication is prominent in professional–client relations. This also seems the case in the educational system. But in education, organization provides the raison d’être of this profession. This organizational infrastructure enables and delimits educational interaction. The school bureaucracy is criticized by the profession; the profession has an outspoken interest in reforming its organizational infrastructure again, again and again. This article provides a theoretical analysis of teaching, which elucidates this relation between profession, organization and work.     

The road taken: professional pathways in innovative curriculum development

This article describes the phases that teachers went through in their engagement with innovative teaching strategies as part of a school‐based research consortium linked to a university department of education in England. The teachers recorded their experiences and responses in diaries which gave access to their dominant feelings and concerns during the innovation. The diaries were analysed to investigate changes in the entries over time. The six phases were: initiation, novice, concerns, consolidation, expansion and commitment. The analysis also indicates the changing nature of professional support that was important during each of these phases. The conditions that characterized the ‘working space’ created by the teachers are discussed and particular emphasis is given to the fact that they collaborated with each other and with outside agents. Evidence from later interviews is used to suggest that these conditions have had a lasting impact on the schools. Further these conditions are related to the concept of social capital and the school research coordinator exploiting a ‘hole’ in the organization. It is argued that social capital among teachers and school leaders is critical to large‐scale change.     

The Assessment of Student Teachers’ Academic and Professional Knowledge in School‐Based Teacher Education

The aim of this study was to scrutinize the assessment of teacher knowledge in a school‐based course at one Swedish pre‐service teacher education program. In a general education school‐based course, teacher educators visited the student teachers at their school placements and met them and their school mentors in student‐teaching conferences to assess their teacher knowledge. The findings primarily show that the assessment procedures are influenced by teacher educators’ organization of the school visits and conferences. Secondly, the organization of the school visits and conferences influences who the potential and actual assessors at the conferences can be and are. Thirdly, the assessed student teacher knowledge at the conferences is described as procedural knowledge in a knowledge‐in‐practice perspective, almost exclusively in the area of relational, emotional, and caring learning objectives and aspects of teaching activities. Fourthly, the findings show that propositional knowledge in a knowledge‐for‐practice perspective is hardly mentioned or assessed.     

The social construction of pedagogic discourse in physical education teacher education in Australia

Abstract

Once the exclusive domain of teacher education, physical education in Australian tertiary institutions has during the last twenty years evolved into a series of discipline‐based fields concerned with human movement studies, leisure studies and sport science that have begun to feed new vocational opportunities in the sport, exercise and leisure industries. Concomitant with these changes in the social organization of knowledge in tertiary physical education has been a realignment of school physical education programmes, particularly in the senior school curriculum. Inevitably, the once sole focus of physical education in tertiary institutions on teacher education is now being forced to reinvent itself in light of these dynamic changes in the social organization of school and university knowledge. Following the work of Bernstein, Goodson and others, this article analyses current policy and practice in physical education teacher education and identifies several future scenarios. The first part of the article provides an historical overview of the emergence of new forms of tertiary knowledge in physical education from the mid‐1970s until the present. The second part provides a similar overview of developments in school physical education with a focus on senior school and matriculation physical education during the same period. The third part analyses the current state of affairs in the social organization of knowledge for physical education teacher education. In the fourth part, a series of questions is raised concerning relationships between knowledge in physical education teacher education, school physical education and university forms of the field through the presentation of several future scenarios. The article concludes with several proposals for policy development concerned with physical education teacher education programmes.     

The Rise of the New Professionals? The restructuring of primary teachers’ work and professionalism

This article explores teachers’ reactions to changing management cultures and argues for a complex reading of their responses. Data from an ethnographic study of a primary school are used to illustrate the restructuring of the teachers’ work since the mid‐1980s. Different teacher strategies were developed in response to changes in the managerial control of their work and dominant management constructions of professionalism. Whereas teachers in an occupational culture, the ‘old professionals’, largely resisted the changes but subsequently left the school or left teaching, the ‘new professionals’ complied with some of management's changed expectations of them, but resisted others. In the new managerialist culture the teachers experienced new forms of control and their roles increasingly included managerial tasks. The article concludes by suggesting that measures for policing teachers’ work, such as inspection and school self‐management may limit the spaces in which teachers can use strategies of resistance within accommodation.     

Teamwork in secular and faith‐based organizations

The word teamwork has become a favorite of corporate leaders; however, many employees view teamwork as a word devoid of meaning. Part of the problem is that teamwork has an entirely different meaning to people at various levels in an organization, and this prevents individuals and different departments within a company from moving forward with a single vision. Another factor is the issue of fair compensation. Traditional managerial views emphasize individual incentives or piecework compensation as the key to employee motivation, while more modern managerial theory contends that giving workers autonomy and showing them appreciation is just as important as financial incentives. There is also a growing trend of mixing religion and business principles to create a harmonious work environment. This article examines research and best practices around key factors that contribute to a team‐based work environment and also explores whether employees at faith‐based organizations are more willing to embrace the team concept than their secular counterparts.     

Grouping Students for Elementary School Mathematics: A Survey of Principals in 12 States

ABSTRACT

In this study I explored how elementary school students are initially assigned to homeroom classrooms (criteria used and heterogeneous vs. homogeneous grouping), subsequently assigned to mathematics classes (e.g., self‐contained, regrouped, departmentalized), and grouped for mathematics instruction within classes (e.g., whole‐class, two groups, individualized). This three‐dimensional typology of school and classroom organization was used to survey 571 elementary school principals from 12 states. Results showed that students were generally assigned to heterogeneous self‐contained homeroom classes, that they remained in these same classes for mathematics, and that mathematics was usually taught to entire classes (whole class). Within‐class ability grouping, within‐grade regrouping, and departmentalized plans were used increasingly for mathematics at the intermediate grades, but across‐grade or Joplin Plan programs were infrequent.     

Research into the School as an Organization. I: A Presentation and Discussion of Research Literature with a Bearing on the School as an Organization

Berg, G. 1982. Research into the School as an Organization. I: A Presentation and Discussion of Research Literature with a Bearing on the School as an Organization. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 26, 95‐117. Only to a limited extent has the school as an organization been the subject of any really systematic research, whether on the part of educationalists, sociologists or general organizational theorists. In this article a number of research projects focusing on the school as an organization are described and discussed. Previous research in this field has been either functionalist or structuralist in approach. Nevertheless, certain concepts are common to the analyses of all the researchers referred to here: all describe the school as an organization in terms of professionalism and bureaucracy. We would add that the school can also be described as a coercive organization.     

Reply to Professors Day and Qing Gu

Science education in the United Kingdom faces a dual challenge in the near future: that of addressing increasing disaffection from the subject by pupils as they enter adolescence coupled with the downturn in learning as they leave primary school behind. Both bridging work and teacher creativity have been identified as key ingredients in ensuring pupil engagement in learning, yet innovation requires both time and a broader vision than may be offered by a normative and centralized pedagogy. This paper proposes a four‐stage model for curriculum development to encourage creativity, based on the experiences of teachers as they designed bridging work for pupils in science. A grounded theory approach is utilized to generate four concept categories emerging from participants' comments during the study. These are described as uncertainty, visioning, realization and readiness, and this research demonstrates that ‘bottom–up’ is a very effective method of professional development promoting combinatorial thinking and creative science teaching.     

School Leaders as Learners: what attitudes and preferences do they have?

Leadership development is a key issue for success in leading educational reform and school improvement. Demands for more flexible, responsive, and enterprise‐driven schooling require that school leaders can create the kind of conditions which sustain vigorous processes of continuous school improvement. To meet this requirement, school leaders must be in command of a broader range of leadership and management expertise than was traditionally required of them. The changing environments make it essential for school leaders to have a high level of awareness of their preferences for leadership development and a commitment to improve their professional performance. This paper discusses findings of a survey‐based study of school leaders’ attitudes and preferences for professional development in Western Australia. Surveys conducted among principals and deputy principals of primary (n = 233) and secondary (n = 180) schools reveal some important similarities, as well as differences, in the extent to which primary and secondary school leaders have recognized the potential for work‐based and peer‐assisted learning.     

The Home School Knowledge Exchange Project: linking home and school to improve children's literacy

The Government is urging teachers to engage more closely with families and is promoting the concept of the ‘extended’ school. This article reports on the literacy strand of the Home School Knowledge Exchange (HSKE) project, directed by Professor Martin Hughes at the University of Bristol. A selection of literacy activities developed during this project is discussed – activities that enabled teachers and parents to share their knowledge about children in order to enhance their learning. These included ‘school‐to‐home’ activities where the direction of knowledge was primarily from teachers to families and ‘home‐to‐school’ activities where families' knowledge of children impacted on school learning. Practical aspects of planning and conducting home–school knowledge exchange activities are discussed, and challenges are explored. The approaches presented in this article provide examples that could be considered and adapted by schools interested in extending their provision for families. This article draws on the recently published Improving Primary Literacy: Linking Home and School ( Feiler et al., 2007 ).     

Research into the School as an Organization. II: The School as a Complex Organization

Berg, G. & Wallin, E. 1982. Research into the School as an Organization. II: The School as a Complex Organization. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 26, 161‐181. This article starts by examining the development of general organization theory, then proposes an overall organization model for analysing the school. A distinction is made between the school as an institution and the school as an organization, the latter defined as a function of the control emanating from the societal and the ‘actor’ level. A set of conceptual tools believed to describe and analyse the school as an organization is outlined. In the latter part of the article an illustration of how the theoretical discussion can be applied to practical situations is given, firstly by an analysis of a case study and secondly by giving examples of factors worth taking into account in concrete analyses of the organizational structures of schools.     

Wilson,Eydie (2013) Serious comix ISTE (Washington & Eurospan,London) isbn 978‐1‐56484‐321‐0 96 pp £27.50 https://www.iste.org/store/product?ID=2444%E2%80%8E

Eydie Wilson's book pleads that struggling secondary learners be encouraged to design on‐screen storyboards as a means of planning various kinds of work. The book is short and—especially at this high price—would benefit from being much better illustrated than it is: in particular, it needs sample learners' work and other forms of case study material. Though clearly written and developed, Serious comix therefore remains dry and shows few signs of the author's passion for its subject. Yet the concept is appealing and has potential: if you think it could have some impact on your work, borrow a copy and see what appeals to you. Eric Deeson     

Developmental aspects of reading motivation and reading achievement among second grade low achievers and typical readers

This investigation examined developmental aspects of 155 second‐graders' intrinsic reading motivation and reading achievement at the beginning and end of a school year. Reading motivation remained at the same level through the school year, while reading achievement was significantly higher at the end of it than at the beginning. According to word reading skills, low reading achievers (n = 63) and typical readers (n = 92) evinced significant differences in reading motivation. The former scored lower in overall reading motivation and self‐concept as a reader, as well as in reading achievement. Throughout the school year, low reading achievers showed a decline in overall motivation, self‐concept as a reader and literacy outloud, and did not improve in reading comprehension achievement. Reading motivation in typical readers remained high and steady during the school year. Implications of the results are discussed in relation to previous studies.     

‘Capitalizing on sport’: sport,physical education and multiple capitals in Scottish independent schools

This paper draws on a research study into the existence and use of different forms of capital – including social, cultural and physical capital – in three independent schools in Scotland. We were interested in understanding how these forms of capital work to produce and reproduce advantage and privilege. Analysis is framed by a multiple capitals approach drawing on and developing the work of Putnam and especially Bourdieu. We suggest that sport plays a role with important effects for strong bonding and for the production of symbolic capital in the form of branding by each school.     

Teachers’ Work as Bricolage: implications for teacher education

The concept of bricolage, as it is developed by Levi‐Strauss, is useful in characterising the form of teachers’ work, it subsumes extensive research on the form of teachers’ work and provides a heuristic device for developing causal explanations of the form of teachers’ work as well as drawing together and unifying explanations developed in the literature. This assists and informs interventions to promote progressive pedagogy. The paper begins with an account of bricolage and its relationship to a science of pedagogy. Next, features of teachers’ work which push it towards bricolage are discussed, viz. conservatism, limited creativity, repertoire enlargement, teachers’ use of theory, the use of devious means, and ad hocism. Causal explanations of various of these features are discussed, viz. anticipatory socialisation, aspects of preservice teacher education experiences and constraints in the work situation. The paper concludes with a discussion of implications for teacher education of taking seriously the suggestion that teachers’ work is bricolage and taking seriously the associated causal explanations. It is argued that a critical starting point for progressive change in educational practice is the provision of inservice for tertiary educators who may themselves be bricoleurs. Without this, the significant necessary changes to preservice students’ on‐campus and within school experiences are unlikely to be supported or legitimated.     

Natural pedagogical conversations in high school students' internship

Many science educators encourage student experiences of “authentic” science by means of student participation in science‐related workplaces. Little research has been done, however, to investigate how “teaching” naturally occurs in such settings, where scientists or technicians normally do not have pedagogical training and generally do not have time (or value) receiving such training. This study examines how laboratory members without a pedagogical background or experience in teaching engage high school students during their internship activities. Drawing on conversation analysis, we analyze the minute‐by‐minute transactions that occurred while high school students participated in a leading environmental science laboratory. We find that the participation trajectory was based on demonstration‐practice‐connect (D‐P‐C) phases that continually recurred in the process of “doing” science. Concerning the transactional structures, we identify two basic conversation patterns—Initiate‐Clarify‐Reply (I‐C‐R) and Initiate‐Reply‐Clarify‐Reply (I‐R‐C‐R)—that do not only differ from the well‐known Initiate‐Reply‐Evaluate (I‐R‐E) patterns previously observed in science classrooms, but also could be combined to constitute more complex patterns. With respect to the organization of natural pedagogical conversations, we find that there were not only of preferred and dispreferred modes of responding but also ambiguous dispreferred modes; and the formulating organization not only includes self‐formulating but also other‐formulating. These natural pedagogical conversations helped, on the one hand, students to clarify their understanding and, on the other hand, technicians (or teachers) to teach toward different needs for different students in different contexts. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 46: 481–505, 2009     

Riots and a blank canvas: young people creating texts,creating spaces

This article draws on research into the work of Greenshoots, 1 1 All young participants referred to in this article have been anonymised and pseudonyms provided. In discussions with Greenshoots and the mentors, they took the decision that they wanted to be named, and for Nottingham to be identified as the context of the place and its history is an important element of their work.
a small company of creative practitioners who provide opportunities for young people to work on projects involving visual and creative practices with a strong link to local heritage. Two specific projects form the focus of the paper: Riot and Blank Canvas. Both aimed to provide opportunities for young people to work with professional artists and performers to create a site‐specific exhibition and performance in a disused warehouse space on the edge of the developing Creative Quarter in Nottingham. The projects took place out of school, and the research focused on the creative processes and practices involved in the production of texts created by the young people as they inhabited the space and developed, within a community of peers and artists, representations of that urban space. This article explores the ways in which the projects open up the potential for young people to engage with literacy practices, which traverse the boundaries of space, of art forms and of notions of culture and heritage. Two theoretical frames are used in the paper: Lave and Wenger's “legitimate peripheral participation” (1991) and various scholars' explorations of place‐based approaches. In this way, the article aims to contribute to understandings of the diverse roles and potentials of young peoples' creative practices and literacies in and out of school contexts.     

Shift of meaning and students' alternative concepts

The purpose of the study was to establish a relationship between the shift of meaning of the concept oxidation that has taken place during the historical development, and students' alternative concepts. First Examination Board papers were examined. The result enabled us to specify the research question. In the main part of the study, multiple‐choice items were given to 3074 senior high school students. They were asked to select the correct answer and to justify their choices. Additional illustrative material was collected in four interviews with senior high school students. The analysis of the data revealed the mechanism that some students used to interpret the reactions from NO₃ ^? to NO and from CO₃ ^2? to CO₂. Students' interpretations were based on the concept of a transfer of oxide ions. The mechanism explains some correct and incorrect answers to the problems. The interview study also revealed that students were reluctant to accept water as a Brønsted base. It is suggested to use students' alternative concepts about oxidation reactions in class, helping them to better understand the half‐reaction method. Students should also understand that the meaning of the concept oxidation has shifted in the course of time. In the area of acid‐base reactions, further research is needed.     

School assessment policy and practice in Belgian secondary education with specific reference to vocational education and training

Based on a survey among 1274 secondary school teachers in Flanders (Belgium), this paper describes the relationship between the assessment practices and forms of assessment policy (testing culture or assessment culture) and between forms of general school policy (student‐oriented or achievement‐oriented) and forms of assessment policy that teachers experience. Reviewing teachers’ attitudes towards assessment policy, it is clear that teachers are not convinced that most schools have a clear concept of an assessment policy. This is the case even though about 82% of the teachers claim to know what the vision of the school on assessment is. The main characteristics of the assessment process lead us to conclude that teachers still live in the testing culture. Although the testing culture exerts a very strong influence over schools, the school policy shows an opening towards an assessment culture. Indeed, a student‐oriented policy is more present than an achievement‐oriented policy. This distinction is important because a student‐oriented policy might bring teachers closer to an assessment culture. Our data show that teachers have a different opinion about this depending on the education sector in which they work and the subject they teach.