Exclusion from School and Racial Equality: an examination of government proposals in the light of recent research evidence

Throughout the 1990s there have been growing concerns from teacher unions, local education authorities (LEAs) and central government about the rising level of pupil exclusions from schools in England and the related issue of school discipline. School exclusion has also been given a high profile in the media, with attention often focusing on cases where the original decision to exclude has been overturned on appeal. Although certain ethnic groups are over‐represented among those excluded from school, issues of race and ethnicity have largely been ignored in the public debate on exclusions and the question of possible racial discrimination overlooked. This article reports on a study to identify good practice in reducing the number of exclusions from school, particularly the disproportionate number amongst African‐Caribbean boys. The study draws on statistical data from Birmingham, the largest metropolitan LEA, and on interviews with teachers and headteachers in six West Midlands case study schools. This data was supplemented by interviews with key personnel from a variety of West Midlands authorities and by questionnaires to pupils in the case study schools. We examine recent government proposals to cut exclusions in the light of this study's findings and the context of racial equality     

The Local Context and the Legacy of the Past

This paper draws upon interviews with eight headteachers in ‘Northern LEA’, and examines (a) how the heads perceived their role in relation to the current period of rapid educational change, and (b) how they sought to cope with the increasingly difficult demands which they faced. The consequences of the current situation are considered in relation to a qualitative understanding of ‘high performance’ which recognises the situational complexity of the school as an organisation.

The heads made use of many sources of support; the most important were a network of informal contacts with other headteachers and an increase in the involvement of senior management team colleagues in the stresses and responsibilities of management. The paper concludes that despite the efforts of the heads themselves, the consequences of resource cuts and the Education Reform Act 1988 are likely to make the achievement and management of high performance increasingly difficult.     

The Two Faces of Micropolitics

Twenty six primary school headteachers in the Midlands of England were interviewed about headteacher appraisal at a point when all of them had been appraised at least once and when in most cases they had been involved in the appraisal of other heads. One set of questions related to the benefits heads perceived that they had received from the headteacher appraisal process. The majority of heads did perceive such benefits and this article explores the nature of these claimed benefits. They included the opportunity to reflect on one or two longer term developmental issues, as opposed to the normal headteacher routine of crisis management on a number of fronts simultaneously; the chance to have a second opinion on their managerial practice; the feeling that someone was observing their work with care and could give praise when due; the possibility of making comparisons with the practice of other heads. Some heads felt they gained more benefits from being an appraiser of other heads than from being appraised themselves. Some of the arrangements for headteacher appraisal had involved more mutuality than the government had originally envisaged, but it is argued that this may have also brought about some unanticipated benefits.     

Portable computers for teachers and support services working with pupils with Special Educational Needs: An evaluation of the 1999 United Kingdom Department for Education and Employment scheme

This study arose from the distribution of portable computers ("portables") to special educational needs coordinators and support services by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) through Standards Grant 36 in mid 1999. The study comprised two successive questionnaires. The aim of the surveys was to elicit the benefits of portables in relation to the special educational needs coordinator/support service roles as well as to evaluate this process of distributing resources.
Questionnaire A to local education authorities (LEAs) was returned by 96 LEAs (a 64% return rate). There were 778 returns of questionnaire B from recipients of portables and 405 returns from the matched group of non-recipients.
Overall the distribution of portables under this grant was well-regarded by LEA personnel, particularly in the smaller authorities, with reservations relating mainly to the lack of time to administer the scheme. The guidance from the DfEE was regarded as helpful with inherent (valued) flexibility. Amount and level of training appeared to have varied greatly across LEAs but where training had been relatively substantial there was evidence of its impact on teachers' reported use of the portables. The scheme was welcomed by school and, particularly, support service staff. However all recipient groups tended to reflect some disappointment with what the portable provided in practice.
Three particular aspects are discussed in more detail. First, in relation to time and workload issues, it was reported that teachers were spending considerable "non work" time in learning to make good use of the portables. Second, there were considerable training needs for teachers and others, spanning a wide range of levels. Third, the position of support service staff warranted more attention as their apparently comparatively disadvantageous position has implications for wider changes concerning centralised LEA, as opposed to school-based, resources.     

Local Education Authorities and the Organisation of Secondary Education, 1943-1950

This article explores the attitudes adopted by local education authorities in England and Wales towards the reorganisation of secondary education in the new era of secondary education for all that was introduced through the Education Act of 1944. In general the Ministry of Education and the post-war Labour government actively encouraged Local Education Authorities (LEAs) to introduce a tripartite system of grammar, technical and modern schools in their areas. However, in many cases it is difficult to attribute LEA support for a bipartite or tripartite system to supine acquiescence; the LEAs involved were also making a principled choice to define the nature of educational provision in their own areas. The article discusses in particular depth the views of LEAs that preferred a bipartite arrangement, and those that promoted tripartism, in order to identify the character of the issues as they appeared to LEAs in this period.     

Some Effects of the National Dispute on the Relationships between Head Teachers and School Staffs in Primary Schools

This paper reports part of a research project on the appraisal of the managerial performance of primary school head teachers. One aspect of the interviews conducted with the head teachers concerned their perceptions of their roles. A number of them expressed the view that the national dispute had affected the nature of their relationships with their staffs. There appeared to be evidence of the development of ‘us and them’ attitudes in primary schools where the heads were increasingly seen as management figures by their staffs rather than as fellow members of the teaching team. Some heads were attempting to resist this trend and some felt uncomfortable at the pressures they perceived to be upon them to move to a different managerial style. Some analysis is attempted of existing methods of management employed by heads in their relations with their staffs in primary schools and an attempt is made to predict ways in which these managerial patterns might now develop.     

EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION IN THE RESOURCES PLANNING INFRASTRUCTURE OF LOCAL EDUCATION AUTHORITIES

This paper summarizes some of the findings in the first part of a three part IBA Fellowship study on curriculum decision‐making and educational television in secondary schools in England, Wales and Scotland. It focuses on the local education authority (LEA) context in which teachers and others make decisions about using educational television programmes to serve curricular goals. Four LEAs were selected for detailed study and interviews were conducted with officials and teachers to investigate the relationship between LEA decisions and decision‐makers and school decisions and decision‐makers.     

Selecting schools for closure: theory and practice in ‘rational’ planning

For more than a decade, LEAs have been under pressure to close schools. During this period the scale of contraction in school provision has been substantial but has nevertheless lagged behind DES expectations. This paper is concerned with the selection of schools for closure or amalgamation and examines in detail the procedures adopted and the proposals advanced in one LEA. While existing evidence suggests that the selection of schools for closure has generally been less than rational, the case selected is an example of what has been officially described as ‘strategic planning’ and ‘good practice’. Policy statements, criteria for selecting schools, and the characteristics of schools earmarked for closure are compared to assess the relationship between theory and practice. In practice, the criteria cited by the LEA were generally not capable of strict application. In addition, unstated criteria, notably school size, appear to have been significant. Thus, the LEA's proposals did not correspond directly to its own stated policy. Further, the extent to which the procedure adopted by the LEA conformed to notions of rational planning was limited. Current legislation is likely to reduce still further the ability of LEAs to produce rational schemes of contraction.     

The Complementary roles of the Headteacher,the Mentor and the Advisory Teacher in Induction and School‐based Teacher Training

This article reports on the findings of a two year research project on the management of new teacher induction in five LEAs (Turner, 1992). Headteachers, mentors and newly qualified teachers in twelve schools were interviewed as were LEA officers, Inspectors and advisory teachers. The analysis showed the key roles of headteacher, mentor and advisory teacher to be different but complementary. The conclusions are drawn from a detailed analysis of some 180 interviews.     

An Evaluation of Strategies and Professional Development Needs on Attendance Issues within an LEA

This is the first article to focus specifically on an evaluation of the existing strategic policies and related professional development needs on attendance within an LEA. Such evaluations are becoming more important as LEAs respond to their first ever OFSTED and prepare for follow-up visits and/or second inspections. Recent evidence suggests that attendance issues are becoming central to overall outcomes in OFSTED visits and in their subsequent reports to LEAs.
This paper outlines the evidence from recent international and British research, considers the national scene and role of the education welfare service and then examines existing practice on attendance within an LEA. The findings of an in-depth investigation into attendance issues within the LEA are then presented followed by key recommendations, an analysis of professional training needs as well as providing evidence on the LEA's progress since these training needs have been fulfilled.     

Streaming and Subject Specialism at Key Stage 2: a survey in two local authorities

Following recent debates about the most appropriate form of school and curriculum organisation at Key Stage 2, a survey was conducted of the practice and views of 246 headteachers in two local education authorities (LEAs) with regard to streaming and subject specialism. The results show that there is very little streaming by ability and, except for music, very little subject specialist teaching. Practice with regard to curriculum integration was more varied although hardly any schools operated an entirely integrated curriculum. Only a minority of heads thought it would be possible to introduce streaming or specialist teaching in their schools, but the heads of the largest schools were very much more likely to think this possible. Heads’ views on these matters were considerably more varied than their practice, with a substantial minority of heads seeing value in streaming and in subject specialist teaching. The study shows the complexity of the relationship between educational beliefs and practices and shows that there is considerable potential for experiment with more varied practice.     

The Experience of Secondary Headship Selection: continuity and change

This paper is about the experience of secondary headship selection. Using data from career history interviews with 20 headteachers, 10 men and 10 women, from two Midlands educational authorities, the paper demonstrates some of the different procedures and processes used to select headteachers. Then by comparing the experiences of the long‐in‐post and recently appointed heads, aspects of continuity and change in the headteacher role are explored. The paper argues that although the processes and the selectors’ perceptions of the appropriate candidates have changed, nevertheless other features such as gender, networking and reputing continue to be important aspects of the headship selection process.     

A critical analysis of the Language Background Other Than English (LBOTE) category in the Australian national testing system: a Foucauldian perspective

The Education Reform Bill is contrasted with the 1944 Education Act, especially in regard to the schools sector and the responsibilities of local education authorities (LEAs). The 1944 Act is seen as part of the formation of a Welfare State after the devastation and social upheaval of the war, in which educational opportunity and notions of a just society were guiding principles. The 1988 bill is seen as based on the spirit of consumerism, individual entrepreneurism and competition: the values of the market.

The contrast is examined specifically in relationship to policies for access to education, where a right based on citizenship is compared with the differential opportunities required by a market place, and through consideration of the different roles required of LEAs in a planned, comprehensive public service compared with a mixed economy of LEA and non‐LEA schools. It is argued that the strategic role of the LEA to plan and ensure provision as circumstances change will be more difficult to perform, and may be vitiated. The contradiction between a national curriculum and a market place in education (centralism vs. the free market) is highlighted and the question raised whether so contradictory a piece of legislation can achieve the ends its promoters hope of it.     

Reform,restructuring, role and other ‘R’ words: The effects on headteachers in England and Wales

This chapter examines the waves of reform, restructuring and reengineering to determine their effects on the role of the headteacher or principal. Data from two major studies of headteachers in the United Kingdom suggest that the role has changed considerably. Specifically, there has been a combination of loose–tight changes which have directly affected schools and their headteachers. Reforms such as the Local Management of Schools (LMS) have given heads control of the own budgets, while the curriculum, testing, and school inspection have moved to the center and control by the government. The reforms are now a reality in the everyday work of headteachers. While some restructuring has occurred, reenginering and fundamental change to the schools’ approaches to teaching and learning are still at a very early stage.     

Transition and other services for handicapped students in local education agencies

A survey was conducted among special education administrators in 1,450 local education agencies (LEAs) nationwide, to determine the availability of vocational programs and transition-oriented services for handicapped youth. Results showed that most LEAs offer at least some vocational programs; transition-oriented services as not as frequently available, particularly in smaller LEAs. In addition to size of LEA, community employment opportunities and the availability of adult services were related to whether an LEA offered any transition-related services.     

Exploring and Interpreting Leadership Stories

This article considers why central government policies are often insensitive to the range of contexts in which they are to be implemented. It reports on small-scale research into one instance of such 'policy insensitivity' associated with the low take-up of candidature for the National Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH) among teachers in small primary schools during the early years of the original NPQH assessment and training scheme in Wales. Findings are reported on perceptions of LEA advisers, aspiring headteachers and their headteachers about the under-recruitment problem. It is noted how the revised NPQH policy appears to be addressing some of the problems identified. The wider significance of policy insensitivity for centralised policy making is highlighted.     

The ‘Reality’ of School Organization

Five headteachers formed a group for the purpose of school evaluation. The approach used involved inter‐visiting and the sharing of the evaluation of each other's schools. The headteachers decided to evaluate the systems operating in their schools, evaluating each other in turn having involved the deputy in collecting staff views. All schools made changes as a result of the evaluations. The need for commitment by LEA or DES to such school evaluation was considered to be important.     

Surviving,not Thriving: Leas since the Education Reform Act of 1988

Local Education Authorities (LEAs) have been features of the administrative landscape of England and Wales for a century. For most of this period, their role, as central government's key partners in the operation of the national education system, expanded. However, intense criticisms of educational organisation and standards, during the 1970s, led to re-assessment of, and ultimately to major reductions in, their responsibilities, during the 1980s and 1990s. This article surveys the changed and changing role of LEAs, and the debate that has surrounded it, during their hundred years of existence, with particular reference to the period since the 1988 Education Reform Act. The concluding part of the article focuses on current developments under the New Labour government, which has assigned a definite but limited range of functions to LEAs. It is argued in this article that, as the 'intermediate level' of LEA administration has been relegated to a marginal role, little purpose would be served by implementing recent proposals for a radical restructuring of the local educational administration.     

Headteacher performance management: an investigation of the role of the external adviser

The performance management scheme that has been operating in English schools since 2000 gives considerable responsibilities to the school's governing body. These include responsibility for appraisal of the headteacher's overall performance as a school leader and manager. Governing bodies are assisted in this task by government appointed external advisers. Drawing on research, this article outlines the role of the external adviser in headteacher appraisal and what we know about how it is working in practice. Some of the key issues are explored and questions raised for further research. External advisers were very clear that their primary role was as advisers and supporters to the governors, but they also put considerable emphasis on the support that they provided for headteachers. They understood, however, that the ultimate responsibility for the performance management of the head lay with the governing body. They also saw themselves as counsellors, facilitators, mentors, honest brokers, coaches and governor trainers. The key to their role was the fact that they were outsiders, with no axe to grind and with no connection to either the LEA or to the national inspection agency (OfSTED).