Fostering critical thinking: Features of powerful learning environments

Critical thinking is a recurrent educational ambition. At the same time, it is not self-evident how that ambition can be realised. This is partly due to the different perspectives from which Critical Thinking can be approached. The literature on critical thinking is extensive and diverse, different meanings and aspects of critical thinking have been explored. However, there is agreement among several researchers that critical thinking entails both ability and attitudinal components. Research in psychology on different types of cognitive processing has similarly pointed to the importance of both skills and attitudes. This article builds on a tripartite notion of disposition that has been proposed in the context of education. The tripartite dispositional perspective on which we elaborate highlights the importance of ability, inclination and sensitivity. We describe and discuss an educational protocol aligned with the tripartite conceptualisation of disposition. The protocol identifies characteristics of powerful learning environments. We propose that the proposed educational protocol—aligned to Critical Thinking education goals, conditions and interventions—can be used for fostering critical thinking. More specifically, the use of four types of interventions are recommended: (1) modelling, (2) inducing, (3) declaring and (4) surveillance. Finally, we underscore that there is a need for further research on the use of the educational protocol.     

Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environments

The epistemic assumptions of constructive learning are different from those of traditional instruction, so classical methods of needs and task analysis are inappropriate for designing constructivist learning environments (CLEs). This paper argues that activity theory provides an appropriate framework for analyzing needs, tasks, and outcomes for designing CLEs. Activity theory is a socio-cultural, socio-historical lens through which designers can analyze human activity systems. It focuses on the interaction of human activity and consciousness within its relevant environmental context. Since conscious learning emerges from activity (performance), not as a precursor to it, CLEs should attempt to replicate the activity structures, tools and sign systems, socio-cultural rules, and community expectations that performers must accommodate while acting on some object of learning. After explicating assumptions of activity theory and briefly describing the components of CLEs, this paper describes a process for using activity theory as a framework for describing the components of an activity system that can be modeled in CLEs.His current research focuses on designing constructivist learning environments, cognitive tools for learning, knowledge representation methods, problem solving, computer-supported collaborative argumentation, cognitive task analysis, and individual differences and learning.His current research focuses on designing constructivist learning environments, cognitive tools for learning, knowledge representation methods, problem solving, computer-supported collaborative argumentation, cognitive task analysis, and individual differences and learning.Her research interests include activity theory and structural knowledge.     

Enhancing learning and problem solving skills: orienting and self-judging, two powerful and trainable learning tools

In this study we report on orienting and self-judging as study and problem-solving activities or learning tools. We examine their trainability and their effect on academic performance. These questions are part of a research project aimed at improving metacognitive knowledge as well as affective, conative and regulation skills. A design experiment with 141 freshmen in business economics was set up. The experimental treatment consisted of an integrated set of instructional conditions which were operationalized in a series of sessions and practice and transfer tasks. The results show that after the intervention students of the experimental group had more knowledge about orienting and self-judging than the students of both control groups and they also oriented themselves better and were more prone to self-judging when starting a new course. Both metaknowledge and transfer behavior were positively related to academic performance.     

Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning

In this review, we discuss (1) how the notion of conceptual change has developed over the past three decades, (2) giving rise to alternative approaches for analysing conceptual change, (3) leading towards a multiperspective view of science learning and instruction that (4) can be used to examine scientific literacy and (5) lead to a powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning.     

A framework for exploring small group learning in high school science classrooms: The triple problem solving space

Instructional Science - Classroom activities using an inquiry approach often feature students working in small groups to reduce teacher-centeredness and maximize student autonomy. Within science...     

ScratchThAI: A conversation-based learning support framework for computational thinking development

Education and Information Technologies - Computational Thinking (CT) has been formally incorporated into the National Curriculum of Thailand since 2017, where Scratch, a block-based visual...     

The role of learning environments in thinking styles

The present study examined the association between students’ perceived general learning environment and their thinking styles (a specific term for ‘intellectual styles’). Seven hundred and fifty-two undergraduates in Shanghai responded to the Thinking Style Inventory-Revised II and the Inventory of Students’ Perceived Learning Environment. Results indicated that students’ perceived learning environment statistically predicted their thinking styles beyond gender, grade, major, and socio-economic status. Specifically, constructivist-oriented teaching, as well as peer morale and identities, were mainly associated with thinking styles that are characterised by cognitive complexity, nonconformity, autonomy and low degrees of structure (known as Type I styles), while clear goals and coherence of curricula mainly statistically predicted thinking styles that are characterised by cognitive simplicity, conformity, authority, and high degrees of structure (known as Type II styles). Student–student cooperation, the nature of assessment and assignments and learning facilities also statistically contributed to thinking styles to varying extents. The implications and limitations of the present findings are discussed.     

Towards powerful learning environments for the acquisition of problem-solving skills

It is generally agreed that acquiring thinking and problem-solving skills is nowadays a primary objective of general education. Responding appropriately to this challenge requires an answer to the following questions: 1. what does the acquisition of problem-solving skills involve, and 2. how can those abilities be fostered through systematic instruction? This contribution describes a four-step model of skilled problem-solving processes, and gives an overview of three major categories of cognitive skills involved in competent problem solving, namely, the flexible and integrated application of domain-specific knowledge, of heuristic methods, and of metacognitive skills. Furthermore, a framework is presented for the design and elaboration of powerful teaching-learning environments in which such problem-solving skills can be acquired efficiently. Two basic ideas underlying this model are: the view of learning as a constructive process, and the idea of cognitive apprenticeship as an effective and appropriate method for learning and teaching. Finally, some recent research findings supporting the educational significance of the framework are briefly reviewed.     

Towards an equilibrium model for creating powerful learning environments. Validation of a questionnaire on creating powerful learning environments during teacher training internships

Recently, many insights have been gained into how to create powerful learning environments. The goal of learning how to teach in this way has important consequences for teacher training. Firstly, scholars indicate the necessity to work out a theoretical framework for the student‐teachers which is sufficiently complete, but still manageable, and which is operationalised into concrete educational approaches. The current article presents such a framework, based on a literature study. Key teaching activities were described by means of 13 dimensions. Aiming at a gradually more complex model for use in teacher education, these dimensions were summarized in a model with four interconnected main dimensions. Possible conflicts between the instructional activities of the four main dimensions were indicated. Teachers have to search for appropriate balances within these dilemmas. The whole is conceptualized as an ‘equilibrium model for creating powerful learning environments’. Secondly, based on this framework, instruments could be constructed which facilitate research into approaches within teacher training which encourage learning how to teach in this way. A questionnaire to evaluate the degree of creating powerful learning environments during internships was, therefore, constructed and validated. Analyses indicate a suitable degree of reliability and validity. Furthermore, a confirmatory factor analysis indicates that the assumed theoretical structure was reflected by the experimental data.

Récemment, nos connaissances au sujet de la création d'environnements d'apprentissage puissants se sont largement développées. L'objectif d'apprendre à enseigner de cette façon a d'importantes conséquences pour la formation des enseignants. En premier lieu, les professeurs spécialisés insistent sur la nécessité de réaliser un encadrement théorique pour les enseignants en formation qui soit suffisamment complet, mais encore flexible, et qui se traduise opération‐nellement en approches éducationnelles concrètes. Cet article présente une structure d'encadrement, sur base d'une étude de la littérature. Les activités fondamentales d'enseignement ont été décrites en utilisant 13 dimensions. Dans le but de construire un modèle graduellement plus complexe dans l'éducation de l'enseignant, ces dimensions ont été résumées dans un modèle avec quatre dimensions principales interconnectées. Des conflits possibles entre les activités d'enseignement des quatre dimensions principales ont été identifiés. Les enseignants doivent rechercher des balances appropriées entre ces dilemmes. L'ensemble est conçu comme un ‘modèle d'équilibre pour créer des environnements d'apprentissage puissants’. En second lieu, sur base de cet encadrement, des moyens pourraient être mis en place pour faciliter la recherche dans les approches de la formation des enseignants pour encourager une manière d'enseigner appropriée. En conséquence, un questionnaire a été élaboré et validé pour évaluer le niveau de création d'environnements d'apprentissage puissants pendant les stages de formation. Les analyses montrent un degré approprié de confiance et de validité. De plus, une analyse factorielle confirmatoire montre que la structure théorique supposée est confirmée par les résultats expérimentaux.

Recientemente hemos ganado criterio en la creación de entornos de aprendizaje fuertes. Aprender como enseñar de esta manera tiene consecuencias importantes para el entrenamiento de profesores. En primer lugar investigadores indican que es necesario que se elabore una teoría bastante completa, pero realizable para los profesores estudiantes tambien, y convertido en actividades concretas de enseñanza. El artículo actual representa tal marco, basado en un estudio literario. Actividades clave de enseñanza se describen en 13 dimensiones. Para llegar a un modelo gradualmente más complejo que se utiliza en la educación de profesores, hemos resumido estas dimensiones en un modelo con cuatro dimensiones principales interconectadas. Conflictos posibles se indicaban entre las actividades de instrucción de las diferentes dimensiones (principales). Profesores tienen que buscar un equilibrio apropiado dentro de estos dilemas. Como concepto global podemos hablar de ‘un modelo equilibrio para crear entornos de aprendizaje fuertes’. En segundo lugar podríamos construir instrumentos basados en este teoría, que facilitan el estudio de planteamientos en el entrenamiento de profesores que pueden estimular a aprender como debe enseñar de esta manera. Por eso, hemos construido y validado un cuestionario que evalúa la creación de entornos de aprendizaje fuertes durante clases de práctica. Análisis indican que hay bastante fiabilidad y validez. Además un análisis factorial consolidado indica que la estructura teórica supuesta se apoya en datos experimentales.

In letzter Zeit sind viele Untersuchungen bezüglich der Kreation erfolgreicher Lernumgebungen gemacht worden und neue Erkenntnisse gewonnen worden. Das Ziel, um diese Untersuchungen in der Wirklichkeit umzusetzen, hat wichtige Folgen für das Trainingprogramm des Lehrers. An erster Stelle weisen Forscher auf die Notwendigkeit eines vollständigen theoretischen, aber für die Studente jedoch noch immer verständlichen, Rahmen auszuarbeiten, der in deutlich fassbare didaktische Vorgehensweisen umgesetz wird. In dem nachstehenden Artikel wird einen solchen Rahmen, basiert auf eine literarische Studie, beschrieben. Die wichtigsten Aktivitäten eines Lehrers werden in 13 Dimensionen beschrieben. Ziel ist um schrittstufenweise einen mehr komplizierten Modell in Lehrerprogramme zu verwenden; die 13 Dimensionen sind daher in einem Modell mit 4 gegenseitig zusammenhangenden Hauptdimensionen zusammengefasst worden. Mögliche Gegensätze zwischen den didaktischen Aktivitäten der unterschiedlichen Hauptdimensionen wurden angedeutet. Zukünftige Lehrer haben als Aufgabe ein Gleichgewicht zwischen diesen Dilemmen zu finden. Das Ganze wird als ‘ein balanziertes Modell für die Entwicklung erfolgreicher Lernumgebungen’ konzeptualisiert. Mit dieser Theorie in Gedanken können Untersuchungsinstrumente entwickelt werden, die nachweisen, wie ein bestimmtes Verfahren im Lehrerpprogramm die Studente motiviert, um in dieser Weise Unterricht zu erteilen. Es wurde ein Fragebogen aufgearbeitet und validiert, um den Grad in der Entwicklung erfolgreicher Lernumgebungen während eines Lehrerpraktikums zu evaluieren. Verschiedene Analysen haben eine ausreichende Zuverlässigkeit und Validität nachgewiesen. Weiterhin hat eine bestätigende Faktoranalyse nachgewiesen, dass der vorausgesetzte theoretische Struktur durch experimentelle Daten wiedergegeben war.     

An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments

The instructional technology community is in the midst of a philosophical shift from a behaviorist to a constructivist framework, a move that may begin to address the growing rift between formal school learning and real-life learning. One theory of learning that has the capacity to promote authentic learning is that of situated learning. The purpose of this three-part study was first, to identify critical characteristics of a situated learning environment from the extensive literature base on the subject; second, to operationalize the critical characteristics of a situated learning environment by designing a multimedia program that incorporated the identified characteristics; and third, to investigate students' perceptions of their experiences using a multimedia package based on a situated learning framework. The learning environment, for preservice teachers, comprised a multimedia program on assessment in mathematics together with recommended implementation conditions for the classroom. Eight students were observed and interviewed to explore their perceptions of the situated learning environment. Findings suggest that the use of the situated learning framework provided effective instructional design guidelines for the design of an environment for the acquisition of advanced knowledge. Since 1992, as a Senior Instructional Designer, she has worked principally in multimedia and Web-based projects. He has been teaching with, and researching innovative uses of, instructional technologies in secondary schools and universities for the past 20 years. The authors would like to thank Professor Tom Reeves for his encouragement and support, and to acknowledge the significant role he has played in the development of our ideas and research direction.     

The role of affective and motivational factors in designing personalized learning environments

In this paper, guidelines for designing virtual change agents (VCAs) are proposed to support students?? affective and motivational needs in order to promote personalized learning in online remedial mathematics courses. Automated, dynamic, and personalized support is emphasized in the guidelines through maximizing interactions between VCAs and individual students. The strategies that VCAs convey throughout the interactions are constructed to support emotion regulation and motivation based on theories and prior research on emotions and motivation. The availability and customizability of VCAs enable the strategies to be implemented in real-time and customized for individual students. Implications of the design guidelines for personalized, online learning contexts are discussed and future research directions are recommended as well.     

Designing computer learning environments for engineering and computer science: The scaffolded knowledge integration framework

Designing effective curricula for complex topics and incorporating technological tools is an evolving process. One important way to foster effective design is to synthesize successful practices. This paper describes a framework called scaffolded knowledge integration and illustrates how it guided the design of two successful course enhancements in the field of computer science and engineering. One course enhancement, the LISP Knowledge Integration Environment, improved learning and resulted in more gender-equitable outcomes. The second course enhancement, the spatial reasoning environment, addressed spatial reasoning in an introductory engineering course. This enhancement minimized the importance of prior knowledge of spatial reasoning and helped students develop a more comprehensive repertoire of spatial reasoning strategies. Taken together, the instructional research programs reinforce the value of the scaffolded knowledge integration framework and suggest directions for future curriculum reformers.Portions of this paper were presented at the American Psychological Association Meeting, Ontario, Canada, August 22, 1993. under the title of Cognition and instruction in higher education: Applications of advanced technologies. The title of the symposium was New Fellows in Educational Psychology-The Implications of Their Work for University-Level Instruction. This material is based upon research supported by the National Science Foundation under grant MDR-8954753. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.     

Design-based research with mARC ID model: designing experiential learning environments

Learning Environments Research - The relationship between experience (through practice) and knowledge (by theory) is becoming increasingly important in contemporary educational research and...     

The moderating effect of instructional conceptions on the effect of powerful learning environments

This study aimed at experimentally investigating the moderating role of instructional conceptions on the effectiveness of powerful learning environments (PLE) designed in line with the four-component instructional design model (4C/ID-model). The study also investigated the influence of learning in a 4C/ID PLE on students’ instructional conceptions. To achieve its goal, a study with a one by one by two pre-test post-test quasi-experimental design was done. Three functionally equivalent classes of students from three similar (secondary technical) schools were randomly exposed to three different treatments. The participants consisted of 129 (47, 41, 41) students. The treatments were one control group with a regular method of teaching, and two experimental groups: a 4C/ID PLE with ICT, and a 4C/ID PLE without ICT. The instructional conceptions questionnaire was administered both in the pre-and the post-test to assess students’ instructional conceptions. Pre- and post-tests contain retention and transfer items. Technical teachers were trained to implement the interventions. In contrast to expectation, findings show no moderating effects of students’ instructional conceptions on the learning environments. Finally, the results indicate that students’ instructional conceptions positively change after implementation of the three interventions. The theoretical, research, and practical implications of the results for the instructional design and technology community as well as educational practice are discussed.