Developing theories of the mind: children's and adults' concepts of mental activities

8-year-olds', 10-year-olds', and adults' concepts of mental activities involved in acts of knowing were examined in an attempt to gain insight into developmental changes in underlying theories of mind. Subjects rated the similarity of how the mind is used in a variety of common activities, each of which primarily involved either memory, comprehension, attention, or inference. Analyses of conceptual structure revealed 2 developmental changes. Between 8 and 10 years of age, children came to see the most important relation among mental activities to be the degree to which they involved memory. Between 10 years of age and adulthood, Comprehension and Attention first appeared as distinct, coherent concepts. At all ages, Memory and Inference were seen as distinct types of mental activities. These findings suggested that a sophisticated understanding of the representational nature of the mind might not be acquired before the latter part of middle childhood and might be mediated by an understanding of the central role played by memory.     

Learning,Empowerment and Judgement

Here is a distinction that appears very simple, looks compelling and seems to be deeply rooted in our reflections on learning. The distinction is between activities of learning that involve training and those that involve reasoning. In the former, the pupil is a passive recipient of habits of mind and action. The mechanism by which they acquire these habits is mimesis, not reasoning. In contrast, learning by reasoning involves considerable mental activity by the pupil who has to work out what to think and do. The very mechanism by which the pupil learns is her own capacity to reason, to things work out for herself.

In this paper I argue that there is no basis for this distinction. I argue that, contrary to the dominant empiricist thinking about such things, learning by reasoning is the only credible form of learning. I start with a brief characterisation of the distinction and an account of why it seems so compelling. In §2 I review the empirical evidence from developmental psychology for a rationalist account of language learning as learning by reasoning. In §§3 and 4 I provide a philosophical argument against the place of training and in favour of a rationalist model of learning by reasoning.     

Early understanding of mental entities: a reexamination of childhood realism

Real physical objects (e.g., a chair) can be distinguished from mental entities (e.g., a thought about a chair) on the basis of a number of criteria. 3 of these are behavioral-sensory evidence--whether the entity can be seen, touched, and physically acted upon; public existence--whether other persons experience the entity; and consistent existence--whether the entity consistently exists over time. Two studies tested 3-5-year-old children's ability to distinguish real versus mental entities on the basis of these criteria and to categorize such entities suitably. Even 3-year-olds were able to judge real and mental entities appropriately on the basis of the 3 criteria, to sort such entities as explicitly real and not-real, and to provide cogent explanations of their choices as well. A further distinction between real and mental entities is that mental entities can be about physically impossible, nonexistent things (e.g., a dog that flies). A third study demonstrated that 3-5-year-olds also appreciated this distinction. Taken together, these results contradict a common characterization of the young child as unaware of the fundamental ontological distinction between the internal mental world and objective reality. The implications of these findings are discussed for 3 other bodies of research: Piaget's characterization of young children as realists, Keil's theory of ontological development, and recent research on children's understanding of the mind.     

Theory of mind in deaf adults and the organization of verbs of knowing

Naive theories of mind provide an organizing scheme for concept formation and categorization. Additionally, they highlight what is important within a domain. This study investigated how deaf adults with hearing parents orgaize 17 cognitive verbs of knowing as a way of describing their naive theory of mind. Deaf adults rated on 1 to 7 scale the similarity of pairs of cognitive verbs in terms of whether 'the words are alike or different based on how you would use your mind when you do that mental activity'. We directly compared the similarity of cognitive verbs in these deaf adults with data collected in earlier research describing the organisation of cognitive verbs in hearing adults. We conducted multidimensional scaling, additive similarity tree, and Pathfinder analyses to assess global, categorical, and local relations in the domain. Deaf adults' theory of mind revealed distinction among mental verbs in terms of information-processing components and constructive certainty components. In all analyses, the deaf group showed a very similar organization to that of hearing adults examined in previous research. We conclude that, although deaf adults might be expected to view congnitive processes differently than hearing adults, they nonetheless exhibit a theory of mind that is highly similar to that of hearing adults.     

心理和谐价值框架下的心理教育初探

笔者首先从人与自然、人与社会和他人、人与精神世界的三维生存状态、人本和异化学说的生存本质出发,把心理置于人与对象化活动的中介和对象化活动的结果角度,把心理和谐界定为心理结构内部各个要素之间、心理世界与外部世界之间相互平衡而又相互适应,能够确保各系统相生相成的心理功能状态,在心理上对人的实在特性有实现体验。影响心理和谐的因素包括环境因素、心理结构因素和行为因素,调节和保持和谐心理状态、形成有助于心理和谐状态的心理机能品质、塑造和谐自我和自我实现是心理和谐的心理教育目标。     

Mental retardation general intelligence and modularity

This article presents a case for distinguishing between mental retardation as a general deficit of thinking and mental retardation that might result from the global effects of a specific deficit in a cognitive module. Using Anderson's (1992a) theory of the minimal cognitive architecture of intelligence and developmental, I show how this distinction can explain the pattern of intellectual strengths and weaknesses in Savant syndrome, Williams syndrome, Down syndrome, and autism. In addition, I discuss the developmental versus difference view and the distinction between organic and cultural familial mental retardation in the light of this theory. I conclude that not only is there no inherent incompatibility between the constructs of general intelligence and modularity of mind but that both are essential to understanding the different patterns of abilities and developmental profiles found in individuals with low IQ.     

从生态心理学的视野看心理健康

心理学研究中的生态学取向主张在现实环境中研究人的心理和行为,认为心理不会发生在文化背景之外,而是在人所从事的各种活动的基础上,心灵和世界的共同生成.从生态心理学的视野来看,就应运用系统的观点来研究心理健康问题,因为心理活动本身是一个有机的系统,心理发展水平只是这一系统中的一个层面,不能割裂联系孤立地看待心理活动,任何心理的发展都是在一个社会生态环境中实现的,心理问题不是单一因素孤立决定的,而是自然、社会以及人际关系等多种因素交互作用的结果.心理健康的实质就是自我的平衡以及自我与环境的平衡的统一,因此,衡量心理健康与否的标准也只有两个,即自我的平衡以及自我与环境的平衡.     

论语言逻辑视域中的心智要素与存在认知

语言起着沟通内在和外在、主观和客观、心灵和自然等作用。语言逻辑是一门尚待完善的现代逻辑分支,心智则是大脑的智力思维活动,而人的认知活动则是人的主体心智对客观对象的感知和认识。进一步讲,在人类认知活动中,语言作为认知客体的中介,必然要内化到主体的思维过程之中,成为主体更加深入地认知客体的主体性条件。在阐述语言逻辑与思维分析、心智要素与存在认知等问题的基础上,论述了人的主体心智与存在认知的特征和关系,以及这种特征和关系在语言逻辑视域中的作用与意义。     

Relations between maternal input and theory of mind understanding in deaf children

This study investigates the relationship between theory of mind (ToM) skills in deaf children and input from their hearing mothers. Twenty-two hearing mothers and their deaf children (ages 4-10 years) participated in tasks designed to elicit talk about the mind. The mothers' mental state talk was compared with that of 26 mothers with hearing children (ages 4-6 years). The frequency of mothers' mental talk was correlated with deaf children's performance on ToM tasks, after controlling for effects of child language and age. Maternal sign proficiency was correlated with child language, false belief, and mothers' talk about the mind. Findings are discussed in relation to experiential accounts of ToM development and roles of maternal talk in children's social understanding.     

Young Children's Awareness of Their Mental Activity: The Case of Mental Rotation

From Piaget's early work to current theory of mind research, young children have been characterized as having little or no awareness of their mental activity. This conclusion was reexamined by assessing children's conscious access to visual imagery. Four-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and adults were given a mental rotation task in the form of a computer game, but with no instructions to use mental rotation and no other references to mental activity. During the task, participants were asked to explain how they made their judgments. Reaction time patterns and verbal reports revealed that 6-year-olds were comparable to adults both in their spontaneous use and subjective awareness of mental rotation. Four-year-olds who referred to mental activity to explain their performance had reaction time and error patterns consistent with mental rotation; 4-year-olds who did not refer to mental activity responded randomly. A second study with 5-year-olds produced similar results. This research demonstrates that conscious access to at least 1 type of thinking is present earlier than previously recognized. It also helps to clarify the conditions under which young children will and will not notice and report their mental activity. These findings have implications for competing accounts of children's developing understanding of the mind and for the "imagery debate."     

论"表象"在价值确立中的作用

表象是区分物理现象和心理现象的关键与基础所在,表象是指表象活动本身,而不是指被表象的东西。这里也借助于布伦塔诺对物理现象和心理现象的区分来理解表象的含义。它是我们当下的、真切的、对表象活动的那一瞬间的体验,它是活生生的、真实的存在;因个体的不同而体验也不同。它是一个心灵构造对象的过程,是一个使意义显现的过程,是一个心灵解读存在的过程!因此表象在价值确立中有着重要的作用。     

弗洛伊德精神分析学对文学创作的影响

弗洛伊德精神分析学,将创作中的心理活动分为潜意识、前意识以及意识三个层面,这三个层面又分别在作家创作过程中起着不同程度的作用。许多优秀的文学作品都是作家在这三个不同意识形态下相互作用影响下的产物。潜意识是作家创作前头脑中的蓄积库,进入前意识状态时作家就不由自主地产生了创作冲动,最后进入意识层面使最终作品浮出水面。这三种心理状态不同程度地影响着作家创作,从而使作品产生了“一千个读者有一千个哈姆莱特”的审美效果。     

Expanding the parameters of academia

This paper draws on qualitative data gathered from two studies funded by the UK Leadership Foundation for Higher Education to examine the expansion of academic identities in higher education. It builds on Whitchurch’s earlier work, which focused primarily on professional staff, to suggest that the emergence of broadly based projects such as widening participation, learning support and community partnership is also impacting on academic identities. Thus, academic as well as professional staff are increasingly likely to work in multi-professional teams across a variety of constituencies, as well as with external partners, and the binary distinction between ‘academic’ and ‘non-academic’ roles and activities is no longer clear-cut. Moreover, there is evidence from the studies of an intentionality about deviations from mainstream academic career routes among respondents who could have gone either way. Consideration is therefore given to factors that influence individuals to work in more project-oriented areas, as well as to variables that affect ways in which these roles and identities develop. Finally, three models of academically oriented project activity are identified, and the implications of an expansion of academic identities are reviewed.     

The Reflecting Brain: Reflection Competence in an Educational Setting Is Associated With Increased Electroencephalogram Activity in the Alpha Band

Teachers' ability to critically reflect classroom situations in relation to their own actions constitutes an important prerequisite to improve teaching performance and professional behavior. This study investigated electroencephalogram activity in the alpha band during a reflection task before and after training in a sample of preservice teachers. Reflection was associated with stable brain activity patterns over two separate time points of assessment. Increased alpha power during reflection of pedagogically relevant scenarios was found at occipital sites, especially in participants with higher reflection competence. This is consistent with prior studies that showed increased alpha power during mental imagery among other tasks. Training of reflection competence, administered in a subsample of participants, was accompanied by increased reflection performance, while no intervention‐related effects were found at the neurophysiological level. The findings of this study provide first preliminary evidence of increased alpha power at occipital sites as a neurophysiological indicator of reflections of pedagogically relevant educational scenarios.     

Empowering the supporters: enhancing the role of unqualified support workers in a housing scheme for people with mental health problems

The research reported in this study is a practitioner action research study that is primarily concerned with the activities of unqualified support workers in an accommodation scheme for people who have experienced enduring mental health problems. A central focus became the relationship between the support workers and professional staff within the wider mental health service. Parallel with a ‘practice gap’ identified in their relationship with professional staff was a ‘supervision gap’ in terms of their relationship with myself as their manager. One means of exploring this relationship was the use of ‘critical scenarios’. A series of ‘connections’ or practice support linkages were put in place that aimed to bridge this gap and at the same time enhance the role of the support workers.     

智障学生与正常学生再认记忆的比较研究

本研究采用中国韦氏智力量表和二项必选数字记忆测验对智障学生进行测试,二项必选数字记忆测验对正常学生进行测试,比较智障学生与正常学生及不同程度智障学生之间再认记忆的差异。结果显示1、智障学生与对照组二项测验容易条目得分的差异无统计学显著意义;困难条目得分、总分的差异有统计学显著意义;2、不同程度智障学生二项测验困难条目得分和总分的差异有统计学显著意义,容易条目得分的差异无统计学显著意义;困难条目得分智商为35-49分组显著低于智商为50-69分及70-85分组。由此得出结论智障学生的再认记忆因干扰刺激与目标刺激之间的辨别难易程度不同而存在损伤分离现象,其损伤也受到智力缺陷程度的影响。     

Children's understanding of the distinction between real and apparent emotion

2 experiments examined children's understanding of the distinction between real and apparent emotion. In Experiment 1, 6- and 10-year-old children listened to stories in which it would be appropriate for the story protagonist to feel either a positive or negative emotion but to hide that emotion. Subjects were asked to say both how the protagonist would look and how the protagonist would really feel, and to justify their claims. The results indicated that 6- and 10-year-olds alike could distinguish quite accurately between real and apparent emotion, although 10-year-olds were somewhat better at justifying this distinction. In Experiment 2, a slightly modified procedure was used to test 4- and 6-year-olds. Again, 6-year-olds demonstrated their grasp of the difference between real and apparent emotion, and even 4-year-olds showed a limited grasp of the distinction. The findings are discussed in relation to recent research concerning children's concept of mind, their grasp of the appearance-reality distinction, their ability to produce complex, embedded justifications, and their ideas about emotion.     

The Role of Age and Verbal Ability in the Theory of Mind Task Performance of Subjects with Autism

A number of studies have reported that most children with autism fail theory of mind tasks. It is unclear why certain children with autism pass such tests and what might be different about these subjects. In the present study, the role of age and verbal ability in theory of mind task performance was explored. Data were pooled from 70 autistic, 34 mentally handicapped, and 70 normal young subjects, previously tested for a number of different studies. The analysis suggested that children with autism required far higher verbal mental age to pass false belief tasks than did other subjects. While normally developing children had a 50% probability of passing both tasks at the verbal mental age of 4 years, autistic subjects took more than twice as long to reach this probability of success (at the advanced verbal mental age of 9-2). Possible causal relations between verbal ability and the ability to represent mental states are discussed.     

THE PROVISION OF COUNSELING SERVICES AMONG SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS: AN EXPLORATION OF TRAINING,CURRENT PRACTICES,AND PERCEPTIONS

Although school psychologists have been called on in recent literature to assume a leadership role in a collective and comprehensive effort to address students’ mental health needs, many practitioners find that their professional roles continue to be narrowly focused on special education‐related activities, such as individualized assessment and eligibility determination. Meanwhile, students’ mental health needs have never been greater. The current study focused specifically on school psychologists’ provision of school‐based counseling, an activity that has been shown to be effective in addressing students’ mental health needs, as well as a professional role that many practitioners have expressed a desire to expand. A national sample of school psychologists responded to an Internet survey related to various aspects of counseling service delivery, including their training to provide services, current practices, and perceptions of the importance for school psychologists to assume the responsibility of providing school‐based counseling services.