绝对战争的历史式微与孙子的战争控制思想

在人类历史上,战争从未长久地停顿过,迄今为止的战争,就其军事形态而言,都是绝对战争,进入21世纪,绝对战争正日益为可控性战争所代替,其根本原因在于战争手段的巨大破坏性制约了战争目的的无限性;世界经济全球化的加速发展制约了绝对战争的爆发与升级;战争的高消耗制约了战争的规模与强度。战争控制包括军备控制、危机控制、冲突控制和局部战争控制诸环节,就战争要素而言,战争控制涉及战争目的、战争手段、战争对象、战争方法、战争时间与战争空间因素的全面控制与全程控制,《孙子兵法》是战争控制的艺术杰作。     

论唐罗与高句丽的战争

唐朝建立之后,逐步与朝鲜半岛三国建立了宗藩关系。但高句丽在权臣盖苏文的专政下,一再破坏这种宗藩关系,攻伐新罗。于是,唐和新罗开始联合打击高句丽及百济,而学术领域有关这场战争的讨论,主要集中在对战争性质、战争原因、战争影响等方面。本文将从战争前的背景、战争的经过,战争的影响,和战争的性质这四个方面来分析这场战争。     

毛泽东研究战争规律的基本观点和方法

毛泽东十分强调对战争规律的认识和把握,他认为战争是有规律的、可知的,战争规律有一般战争规律和特殊战争规律,应着眼其特点、着眼其发展研究战争规律,研究战争的目的在于应用规律指导战争。毛泽东研究战争规律的基本观点和方法,为科学研究和认识高技术条件下局部战争规律提供了可靠的理论依据。     

春秋时期的战争礼

《春秋左传》中比较完备地保留了春秋时期的大量战争史实。这些翔实的战争记录显示,春秋时期频繁复杂、充满残酷杀戮的战争中却有着一整套与后世迥然不同的战争礼。这些战争礼不仅折射出当时战争不同于后世战争的温情与体恤,而且反映了人们尊王、从礼、敬德、重仁等思想。两千多年前中国战争的原始状况借助于战争礼得以真实展现。     

《左传》中的战争

春秋时期各诸侯国为了生存和发展,由此引发了大大小小的战争,并且战争规模不断扩大。战争的胜败与国家政治、经济、军事策略、将帅才德密切相关,德、义、礼、信成为评判战争正义与否的依据。《左传》重视战争的战略战术,讲究策略。《左传》既是丰富战争实例的荟萃,也对战争理论进行了深入的总结。     

“军阀时期”中国红十字会的兵灾救护

"军阀时期"--1916年至1928年--中国红十字会本着博爱襟怀,继续着救伤恤难的人道主义事业,在讨袁之役、护法战争、直皖战争、粤桂战争、直奉战争、江浙战争、奉浙战争等兵灾中进行广泛救护,克尽其职,受到社会各界的交口称誉。     

论地方战争文化的研究作用——以秦东地方战争文化研究为例

地方战争文化是基于地方意识的战争表达方式,是地域背景的战争情感、观念、行为的文化表达,是战争文化的基础和重要组成部分。地方战争文化研究在在战争文化研究的学科平台建设、学科视野开阔、研究领域拓展等方面具有重要作用。     

构建毛泽东战争诗学体系的设想

毛泽东战争诗词与毛泽东军事思想、战争观念有着千丝万缕的联系,是对其战争观念的艺术阐释。毛泽东战争诗学内容丰富,既有革命理想的诗性总结,又有对战争诗词创作的精辟概括。对毛泽东战争诗词的研究和构建毛泽东战争诗学体系,必将进一步丰富中国诗学的内蕴。     

浅析媒体在战争中的角色——以伊拉克战争为例

随着互联网的普及,新闻信息发生的画面和现场音得以在瞬间传遍全球。在伊拉克战争中,传媒成为战争的先行者,传媒战成为战争中的亮点。信息时代高技术战争中,传媒悄然成为战争的重要组成部分,已经由战争的观察者、记录者变成战争的参与者和协助者。     

戏剧化的战争——浅析《三国演义》战争描写的戏剧特色

从陈寿的《三国志》、民间的三国故事,到罗贯中《三国志通俗演义》的成书,经历了一千多年的虚构、想象的民间再创作过程。《三国演义》不是为写战争而写战争,而是更着重战争氛围的渲染、战争过程的表现,用小说的细腻和深刻,以戏剧的夸张和幽默,对战争场景、战略谋略、战争氛围、敌友变化以及战争人物进行了戏剧化的再现,从而达到了让读者对战争题材多元感悟的艺术追求。     

Relations among child care quality, teacher behavior, children's play activities, emotional security, and cognitive activity in child care

Eight hundred forty children (435 girls) enrolled in full-time, center-based child care participated in the study. Children ranged in age from 10 to 70 months. Sixty-six percent of the children were European American, the remainder African American. Children's play activities and cognitive activities as well as their relationships with caregivers were observed within the child care setting. The study tested the prediction that variation in children's cognitive activities could be directly and indirectly explained by child care quality, positive social interaction with teachers, and children's play activities and attachment security with their child care teachers. The prediction was examined and at least partially supported in eight subsamples of infant-toddler and preschool age European American and African American children in subsidized and nonsubsidized child care. Specifically, in seven of the eight subsamples, 15 to 30% of the variability in children's cognitive activities could be predicted from positive social interaction with teachers, attachment security, and participation in creative play activities.     

Gender, adult structuring of activities, and social behavior in middle childhood

The study was designed to test the relations among gender, adult-provided activity structure, and social behavior for children in middle childhood. Adult-provided structure was defined as verbally presented rules, guidelines, suggestions, and modeling. Children aged 7-11 years attended a 1-week summer day camp in which activities characterized by high or low adult structure were available. As predicted, girls spent more time in highly structured activities, whereas boys spent more time in low-structure activities. Once in high-structure activities, however, both genders displayed high rates of adult-directed bids for recognition, leadership attempts, and compliance and low rates of peer interaction. In low-structure activities, children directed high rates of leadership and other social behaviors to same-sex peers. Children who chose high-structure activities most often were also most likely to interact with adults in those activities. Those who chose low-structure activities showed the highest rates of interaction with male peers. Sex-typed personality attributes were not related to activity choice. The results are interpreted in a framework encompassing the interactions of "person" attributes, environmental variables, and behavior.     

Leisure activities,optimism, and personal growth among the young-old,old-old,and oldest-old

The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of leisure activities to optimism and personal growth among older adults. We used data from the Alameda County Health and Ways of Living Study. The sample consisted of 1600 individuals who were 60 years of age and older. While the literature shows that participating in leisure activities is relevant to improving the well-being of older adults, the impact of such participation across various age groups is yet to be determined. We employed a one-way multivariate analysis of variance to determine the age group differences with regard to optimism and personal growth. We also used a series of hierarchical regression models to examine the contribution of the types of leisure activities on optimism and personal growth across various age groups. The ability of leisure activity variables to predict optimism was the highest for the old-old group. The old-old group demonstrated the highest level of predictability from the leisure activity variables regarding personal growth. We suggest that professionals need to provide carefully selected leisure activities to enhance optimism and personal growth for clients within different age groups. Professionals may include a variety of physical, social, and volunteering activities for the young-old and old-old groups while more casual leisure activities such as community activities and entertainment can be offered to the adults of 80 years and older.     

Counselor Role,Function, and Job Satisfaction

A survey of 246 certified Tennessee school counselors was made regarding job satisfaction as related to the ASCA role and function recommendations. It was found that the counselors were most job satisfied with placement activities and least job satisfied with research activities.     

Men and women as parents: sex role orientations, employment, and parental roles with infants

Mothers' and fathers' sex role orientations and employment situations were examined in connection with their involvement in child-oriented activities using a longitudinal research design. During interviews that took place within 3 months of their wedding dates, 34 couples completed questionnaires that measured their sex role attitudes, masculinity-femininity, and their skills and role preferences for performing a number of child-oriented activities. Approximately 1 year later, after the couples had become parents, they were interviewed about their employment situations and again about their child-care skills and role preferences for performing certain child-care tasks. During the 2- to 3-week period following the second interview, the couples were telephoned on 9 occasions and asked to report on the household tasks, leisure activities, and child-oriented activities they had performed during the 24-hour period that preceded each call. The findings showed that mothers' sex role attitudes before their infants' births predicted their role preferences after their babies were born, and these two factors, as well as mothers' involvement in the paid labor force, were related to the extent of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Mothers' masculinity and femininity, however, were unrelated to their parenting behavior. In contrast, fathers' work involvement was related only to the extent of their leisure activities with children. In addition, fathers' role preferences for performing child-care tasks and their perceived skill at such tasks (as measured both before and after their children's births) were related to the overall extent and the nature of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Fathers' role preferences were somewhat stable from before to after children's births, and fathers' preferences before their children were born predicted the mothers' preferences afterward. Neither fathers' sex-role attitudes nor their masculinity or femininity, however, predicted their activities with infants.     

Activities and Interactions of Mothers and Their Firstborn Infants in the First Six Months of Life: Covariation, Stability, Continuity, Correspondence, and Prediction

Activities of primiparous mothers and infants were observed at 2 and 5 months of age during naturalistic interactions at home. 5 prominent features of mother and infant exchanges in this short-term longitudinal study are described and discussed in the context of 3 models of unique environment-development relations: covariation, stability, continuity, correspondence, and prediction. Generally, mothers' activities did not positively covary at either age, nor did those of infants. Some maternal activities were stable in this time period; some developmentally increased, and some developmentally decreased. Infants' activities were unstable, but most increased over time. Specific mother and infant activities corresponded, and over time mothers and infants influenced one another in specific ways. In the critical period of the first half year, infants appear to be flexible and plastic in their behavioral repertoires and are influenced by their mothers; mothers are somewhat consistent, but they also adapt to the behaviors of their infants.     

Observing young children's creative thinking: engagement,involvement and persistence

This paper looks at young children's creative thinking as inferred through observations of their activities. A total of 52 episodes of child-initiated and adult-initiated activities in 3- to 4-year-olds in an English Children's Centre were analysed using the Analysing Children's Creative Thinking (ACCT) Framework. Results showed that activities such as gardening and construction were as valuable for supporting creative thinking as ones traditionally associated with creativity, for example, music and painting. Outdoor play of all kinds and socio-dramatic play were particularly effective contexts. All adults played a significant role in facilitating children's initial engagement in activities, and at supporting their speculative thinking and use of prior knowledge. Teachers were often more successful than other adults in supporting the acquisition of new knowledge. Child-initiated activities featured the highest levels of involvement, and were associated with trying out and analysing ideas, flexibility and originality, imagining and hypothesising. This was particularly evident in group or pair play. Children were also more persistent in child-initiated activities. Evidence of risk-taking behaviour was low, although more apparent in child-initiated activities than adult-initiated activities, or activities in which adults were present.     

Passive,active, and constructive engagement with peer feedback: A revised model of learning from peer feedback

To deepen understanding of learning through peer feedback, the current study investigated the relationships between different peer feedback activities (organized into constructive vs active activities) and learning (i.e., transfer to new tasks), examining the nature of activities within provided feedback, received feedback, and revisions in response to feedback. Across five US high schools, 367 students in Advanced Placement classes participated, implementing common assignments and peer assessment rubrics. Provided/received comments and revisions in one assignment, and writing improvements observed in a second assignment were exhaustively coded and subjected to hierarchical model regression analyses. Results showed that constructive activities (providing explanations and making revisions after receiving explanations or providing suggestions) were consistently associated with learning, whereas passive (e.g., receiving feedback without making revisions) or active activities (e.g., implementing specific suggestions) were not. Further, the effects of received feedback on learning were mediated by the number of revisions. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Self-Initiated Learning Activities of Experienced Public School Teachers: Methods,sources, and relevant organizational influences

The self-initiated learning activities of experienced public school teachers are examined in this study. Twenty-two experienced teachers were interviewed to develop a greater understanding of the types of self-initiated learning activities in which they engage and the organizational characteristics that influence their participation in those activities. Analysis of the data showed that experienced teachers engaged in three types of self-initiated learning activities: knowledge exchanging, experimenting, and environmental scanning. Participation in these activities was influenced by the availability of resources, physical layout, and level of centralization in their schools. Implications of these findings for theory, practice, and future research in teacher learning and development are discussed.     

Pedagogical beliefs, activity choice and structure, and adult–child interaction in nursery classrooms

A qualitative analysis of four cooking activities undertaken in two nursery classes reveals relationships between the adults' pedagogical beliefs, the choice and structuring of activities, and the nature of adult–child participation. Four adults each planned and carried out separately, one cooking activity of their choice with a small group of children, as part of a normal nursery session. The activities were video recorded and transcribed, and a grounded theory approach was adopted to analyse the adult–child interactions. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with the adults which provided insight into their pedagogical beliefs and rationale for their teaching approaches. Analysis of the data reveals a dichotomy in the cooking activity choices made by the adults between baking recipes which required a high level of adult control, and other cooking activities which required minimal adult intervention. Observations of the cooking activities demonstrate differences in the structure of the activities and the nature of adult–child participation. The interviews reveal how the teachers' pedagogical beliefs and intentions informed their choice and structure of the cooking activities. This study provides an illustration of the relationship between the adults' pedagogical beliefs, activity structure, and the interactions between the adults and children in one type of activity in a nursery setting. The appropriateness of the design and feasibility of the observation method is also considered.