Critical discourse analysis and inclusive educational policies: the power to exclude

The legislative shift towards an inclusive education policy in Cyprus has allegedly been fragmented and contradictory. The textual hybridity of the ostensibly more inclusive policy documents prevents the realization of an inclusive discourse. Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is proposed as an emancipatory research tool that has the potential to destabilize the authoritarian discourses entrenched in educational policy agendas, thereby facilitating the linguistic and, by implication, conceptual reinstatement of inclusion as a notion that unequivocally advocates the protection of the human rights of children with special educational needs (SEN). In the first section, the article concentrates on the theoretical perspectives of CDA within the context of inclusive education policymaking. For illustration purposes, CDA is used here to expose the power/knowledge grid and its subjugating attributes, enshrined in two official legislative documents. The aim is to answer the following questions: (1) In what ways does the legislative document construct and sustain asymmetrical power relations? (2) In what ways are children with SEN constructed and positioned? and (3) In what ways are children’s human rights silenced? The next section is given over to the criticisms of CDA, whilst the final section raises some issues and identifies some problems in relation to the value of CDA as an emancipatory research tool.     

Moving towards inclusive education in Cyprus?

Within the last decade, the government of Cyprus has encouraged and supported the education of children assessed as having special needs into the mainstream educational system. With the existing arrangements, however, many pupils who experience difficulties within schools (and many of those are pupils who have been integrated from special schools) are marginalized or even excluded from teaching. This paper looks at the existing arrangements of special education in Cyprus by analysing local practice to identify barriers to inclusion, to consider ways of improving schools and classrooms in relation to policy‐making, and to see how to go forward towards inclusive education. Using four stories from the author’s involvement with one school, and reflecting on them, the author presents what was seen as barriers to providing more inclusive education.     

Developing an inclusive system in a rapidly changing European society

This paper uses Ireland – one of Europe’s most rapidly changing societies – as a case study and examines progress towards an inclusive education system. It explores policy and progress on developing an inclusive system under a number of key headings: social class, ethnicity, gender and disability. On the basis of analysis of official statistics and of research evidence from a study of the inclusion of children with disabilities and special educational needs, this paper assesses whether the impact of recent state policy and legislative change has significantly increased the degree of inclusion in the education system under the four headings. There is a particular focus on the area of disability. The particular questions explored in this paper are whether the unprecedented changes which have taken place in Ireland since the mid‐1990s have resulted in a more inclusive system, an increase in equality, and an increase in inclusive practices in schools. On the basis of the available evidence, the results appear to be mixed.     

Being a teacher educator: professional identities and conceptions of professional education

Background:?In the context of Cyprus’ accession to the European Union (2004) and a noteworthy increase in immigration towards Cyprus, the Cypriot state was called upon to build more complete and coherent policies addressing culturally diverse educational settings. Cypriot education has historically enforced the nation-building project. However, since its accession negotiations to the EU, Cyprus received calls for harmonising its intercultural education to European standards.

Purpose:?This study aims to examine the content of intercultural policies in Cyprus, which have been initiated and/or developed by the national state and particularly the Ministry of Education and Culture. Furthermore, it explores the ways in which Cypriot policies are shaped by European influences, and the implications of this process for national constructs of intercultural education.

Sources of evidence:?We collected a purposive selection of thirty policy documents regarding intercultural education that were produced by the Ministry of Education and Culture in Cyprus. In addition, six Cypriot policy-makers working in the MEC's departments were interviewee participants. They were selected purposively according to the level of their involvement in the development of Cypriot intercultural policy.

Design and methods:?Data were coded to identify groups of concepts, issues, perceptions and behaviours and interrelationships within a theoretical model. Data triangulation contributed to the development of thematic categories that emerged from the data.

Results:?The analysis of the documentary evidence in this study suggests that the language of European policy has imbued the Cypriot socio-political environment with inclusive discourses enhancing intercultural education. Analysis in this study identifies that the Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture maintains an assimilationist orientation in its broader educational goals, despite adopting such (inclusive) discourses.

Conclusions:?This study argues on the basis of this evidence that Cypriot intercultural policy appears symbolic, indicating ‘simulated’ development and implementation processes. Arguably, there remains a high degree of ambivalence towards the process of transformation needed to Europeanise intercultural policy in Cyprus.     

Educational Enrolment of Students with a Disability in New South Wales and Victoria

The extent to which legislation and special education policy have impacted on the nature of the educational enrolment of students with a disability in Australia has not been clearly addressed. Although there are no detailed and systematic national data on the enrolment of students with a disability in inclusive settings, special classes and special schools in Australia, some broad trends are apparent. The legislative background to these trends is discussed. As might be expected, there are variations in the nature of the educational enrolment of students with a disability across the states and territories of Australia. Enrolment trends in the two most populous states, New South Wales and Victoria, are examined and discussed within the context of their respective special education policies, disability discrimination legislation, and educational precedent.     

Time to end the bias towards inclusive education?

The UK coalition Government's call to end the ‘bias’ towards inclusion represents a shift in ‘policy speak’ as the new administration attempts to re‐narrate special education by putting forward a ‘reasonable and sensible’ solution to the ‘problem of inclusion’. However, implicit in the call is the assumption that there has, in fact, been a ‘bias towards inclusion’ in education policy and practice; here, that assumption is challenged. Using a critical disability studies perspective, Katherine Runswick‐Cole, who is a research fellow in Disability Studies and Psychology in the Research Institute of Health and Social Change at Manchester Metropolitan University, draws on the concept of ableism and critiques of neo‐liberal market systems in education to reveal and explore the persistent barriers to inclusive education embedded within the education system. It is argued that although there may have been an inclusive education policy rhetoric, this rhetoric is rooted in conceptual incongruities which, rather than promoting inclusion, undermine an inclusive approach to education.     

Paradigm Shifts in and around Special Education in New Zealand

There are few sectors in New Zealand education that have been as frequently reviewed and subjected to such wide-ranging policy changes as special education. The evolution of special education policy that has taken place in the past decade reflects the coalescence of several paradigm shifts. Some of these have been in the field of special education, where there has been an international shift away from categorising students in terms of their disabilities to making judgements on their needs for educational support, and away from segregated educational provisions to more inclusive approaches. Others reflect changes in the broader education system, in particular the shift towards more local control of decision making about resource allocation. This paper will examine the tensions inherent in these paradigm shifts and the interactions between them.     

The implementation of inclusive education in South Africa after ten years of democracy

Inclusive education in South Africa has not been promoted as simply one more option for education but as an educational strategy that can contribute to a democratic society. After the end of the Apartheid era the new democratic government committed itself to the transformation of education and key policy documents and legislation stress the principle of education as a basic human right as enshrined in the Constitution. White Paper 6: Special Needs Education, building an inclusive education and training system (2001) provides a framework for systemic change for the development of inclusive education. As a philosophy, the concept of inclusive education in the South African context embraces the democratic values of equality and human rights and the recognition of diversity. Research however indicates that multifaceted societal changes, encompassing educational reforms and contextual changes, including the management of diversity in schools, have had a negative impact on the implementation of inclusive education. After ten year of democracy, the enduring tension between changing the structure of education and changing the process of education is still influencing progress. Enhancing the recognition and acceptance of the basic rights of all South African children to be accommodated in inclusive school communities therefore remains a challenge.     

Including Pupils with Special Educational Needs: beyond rhetoric and towards an understanding of effective classroom practice

The future of educational provision for pupils with special educational needs can be seen to be central to educational debate across Europe and the USA. Legislation from many countries has focused upon the means by which the achievement of a more inclusive education system can be achieved. This article suggests that whilst the socio‐political and moral arguments for inclusion have been well established, insufficient attention has been given to the development of an understanding of classroom practices which are conducive to creating an inclusive education system. The moral imperative for inclusion is clear and few teachers would deny that a move towards a more equitable education system should be regarded as a priority. Yet, moves towards the achievement of greater inclusion have been slow. Existing research has demonstrated that under some circumstances inclusion can be efficacious, yet many teachers remain uncertain with regard to its implementation in their schools. This article argues that there is a need to move forward from debating the justification of inclusion and to shift efforts in the direction of an analysis of effective classroom practice to meet the needs of those pupils who are currently presenting the greatest challenges to teachers.     

Towards a shift in perspective for inclusive education research – a continental approach

With a starting point in the tradition of geisteswissenschaftliche Pädagogik, this article presents a challenge to inclusive education research to engage a Continental perspective on educational research. The motivation is to entice inclusive education researchers to begin to ask educational questions of inclusion, as opposed to inclusive questions of education. Recent years has seen a call to re-think inclusive education research and this paper attempts to answer this call by turning to a Continental perspective and the emphasis on an at least relative autonomy for the theory and practice of education. The article explores the relationship between Continental and Anglo-American educational theory, and why they seem to have developed in such distinct directions. Beginning with the Anglo-American perspective, it is outlined how pedagogy and the so-called educational interest became replaced by the scientific standards dominant in other academic disciplines. This is countered by a look at the continued endeavours in the Continental spheres to formulate specifically educational criteria for educational processes. This leads to a negative aim in the form of arguing against neo-liberal policy and the politicisation of inclusive education, and a positive aim in the form of an argument for a move towards constructing a pedagogical ideal of inclusion.     

Special education in the last twenty years: have things really got better?

Peter Farrell, Professor of Special Needs and Educational Psychology in the Faculty of Education, University of Manchester, addresses three key themes related to the education of pupils with special educational needs: the role of categories in special education; the impact of legislation on assessment procedures; and developments in inclusive education. His considered view is that progress towards more inclusive practice and an enhanced role for parents have brought about positive developments. He is more cautious about the impact of the revised Code of Practice , which, he suggests, perpetuates some of the procedural and bureaucratic burdens associated with the past.     

Developing inclusive practice: teacher perceptions of opportunities and constraints in the Republic of Ireland

There has been a significant policy shift from parallel systems of special and mainstream education in the Republic of Ireland towards provision underpinned by enabling legislation with a presumption for inclusion. The role of teachers in establishing inclusive learning environments is critical and it is generally accepted that inclusive practice relies to a large extent on teacher knowledge, skills, understanding, capacity and attitudes. This exploratory study aimed to gather information on teachers' attitudes about inclusion, and perceived constraints in creating inclusive learning environments. A range of schools from urban, semi-urban, provincial and rural backgrounds were included and data were collected using semi-structured interviews (n?=?24) including all principals, class teachers and support staff in the participating schools. Teachers recognised the challenge of responding appropriately to diversity within schools and are generally supportive of the principle of inclusion. However, there are clear concerns around their individual capacity and the capacity of their schools to develop inclusive learning environments. A positive school ethos was a significant factor in ensuring inclusive practice. International research indicates that the complex mix of positive teacher beliefs combined with fears and perceived inadequacies is quite common in the evolution of practice towards inclusive learning environments.     

Achieving inclusion of students with disabilities in Turkey: current challenges and future prospects

Developing inclusion in schools has been an objective for many countries in recent decades, giving rise to a variety of definitions, policy -making activities and school practices. This paper focuses on the attempts made towards inclusion of students with disabilities in Turkey. We start by introducing inclusive education and its parameters, and continue with recent trends in education in Turkey. Next, we discuss current progress in including students with disabilities within mainstream schools, and continue with the legislative attempts made to improve this position. After that, we discuss recent developments and challenges in the education and inclusion of students with disabilities, and conclude by noting several recommendations for realising their inclusion in Turkey. While the purpose of this paper is to investigate the inclusion of students with disabilities in the Turkish context, there is much of relevance to other international contexts going through similar developmental processes in terms of inclusion.     

Democratic reform and the emergence of special needs education in Lithuania

Lithuanian educators began working towards the transformation of their educational system in the late 1980s. The movement away from centralized control and an education based on Soviet ideology was central to the Democracy movement in this country and other former Soviet republics. This paper demonstrates the ways in which the movement towards a democratic system built on contemporary Lithuanian values, beliefs and culture has included concerns for the education of children with special needs. By tracing Lithuanian cultural and historic traditions related to the education and care of individuals with disabilities, before, during and after the Soviet period of Soviet occupation, the authors demonstrate the relationship between social-historic contexts and the development of inclusive schools, i.e. general education settings that serve all children. The current status of education for children with special needs is discussed. This discussion includes current legislation and professional preparation, as well as identifying barriers to democratic reform and the creation of an inclusive educational system.     

Implementing inclusion in disabling settings: the role of teachers’ attitudes and practices

Teachers’ attitudes towards disabled students seem to define the extent to which teaching practices are inclusive. Aiming to explore Cyprus secondary education teachers’ attitudes and practice, and the consequent implications for the future of disabled students and inclusive education, we conducted mixed methods research. Our research typology was sequential and integrated. First, we conducted a survey, during which we received 536 questionnaires from our randomly selected stratified sample of Cyprus secondary education teachers. The survey was followed by interviews with 21 Greek Philology teachers that enriched the findings from the quantitative phase. Data analysis revealed that even though Cyprus secondary education teachers have a rather positive attitude towards disabled students, they have low expectations from them and do not employ inclusive teaching practice. In addition, they tend to categorise students based on abstract notions about ability. Stereotypes and prejudice are more evident regarding students with cognitive disabilities. Despite the observed disabling practices, participants postulated that there is hope to implement inclusive education, if teachers are trained for inclusion and thereby begin to see the person and not the disability.     

Case study on special needs education in Pakistan: the process of inclusion

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an overview of the present educational system and structures in Pakistan. Historical developments in special education are reviewed, and legislation, policy, administration and organization at the national, regional and local levels are described. Efforts are under way in Pakistan to move away from the dual system of education, in which children with special educational needs receive educational services in special schools, towards an inclusive school system. Initiatives to mainstream children are being launched in pilot projects, and efforts are being made to build linkages between special and regular schools. Under the term ‘special needs education’, the trend is to shift the focus from disability categories towards building the capacity of the schools and providing needed support services. It is envisioned that the first step in promoting inclusion is to consolidate the dual administrative structure into a single system, with a clearly defined policy and plan for accommodating children with special needs within ordinary schools.     

A comparative perspective on the experiences of deaf and hard of hearing individuals as students at mainstream and special schools

Integration of individuals categorized as having special educational needs in mainstream schools has become a dominant policy in many countries. Changes in recent years in the field traditionally called "special education" have significantly influenced the education of deaf and hard of hearing individuals. The movements against segregation and toward integration and, more recently, inclusion, have created the conditions for educational changes, not only in mainstreaming but in special education. The article brings to light the views and experiences of deaf and hard of hearing people as students at special schools and mainstream schools, in order to compare the two systems from the viewpoints of those involved and to explore the possible implications of these views and experiences for the development of the educational system in Cyprus regarding inclusive education. Particular attention is given to improvement of the education of deaf and hard of hearing children.     

Supporting inclusion in early childhood settings: some possibilities and problems for teacher education

Aotearoa New Zealand, like other countries, has legislation and policies that support inclusion and promote the participation of all children and families in early childhood education. We might expect therefore to see a culture of inclusion resonating through policy and practice in early childhood settings. There are early childhood teachers who support such legislative and policy goals, who are committed to inclusion, and who are developing more inclusive early childhood services. Yet, it is also evident that discrimination and exclusion is experienced by many. Teacher education plays an important role in supporting inclusion and assisting teachers’ development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will support them to teach all children. In this paper, we write as a group of teacher educators and demonstrate the challenges we took up to move beyond traditional approaches to inclusive education and to open up theoretically and practically diverse possibilities for thinking and doing inclusion differently in early childhood teacher education.     

Virtual professionalism and the challenge for Irish educators

Abstract

This paper attempts to assess policy making for special educational needs in Northern Ireland (NI) from the reform in 1996 of procedures for the identification of pupils with disabilities to current proposals for the reform of procedures for the selection of pupils for secondary education. The reports of Dyson (DENI, 1998b) and Bums (DENI, 2001a), focussing respectively and exclusively upon provisions for disabilities and abilities, are proposed as defining events in a period during which significant advances towards a more inclusive education provision coincided with disparate and fragmented policies for special educational needs. Drawing upon policy documents, regional reports and statistical evidence, the paper attempts to assess progress towards the inclusion for pupils with special educational needs in NI and to gauge government intentions to encourage greater inclusion for such pupils.     

INCLUSIVE AND SPECIAL EDUCATION: Inclusive and special education in the English educational system: historical perspectives,recent developments and future challenges

Special education in England has over the past 25 years been subject to rapid development, not least in relation to the emergence of inclusive education. Alan Hodkinson of the Faculty of Education, Community and Leisure, John Moore's University, critically examines the development of inclusion in England and the barriers that can stall the development of this important educational and societal initiative. He discusses the journey towards inclusion from educational segregation to integration and describes the current Government stance on this important subject. Alan Hodkinson suggests that many of the barriers to effective inclusion are in practice located within the loci of Government, local authorities as well as that of schools. He concludes that it is now time to develop a new vision for the education of children with special educational needs and disabilities that is supported by straightforward, co‐ordinated and well‐resourced policies. If educational policy is to achieve an inclusive consciousness, it must ensure that the views of children, their families and educational professionals are listened to, and that inclusion is by the choice of the pupils and their parents and not by compulsion.