The National Grid for Learning Initiative: Connecting the learning society?

This article considers what primary Subject Leaders are doing as a part of their role in schools, what their perceptions of the role are and how this relates to the TTA standards for Subject Leadership. The information presented is based on research conducted in 10 primary schools with 20 Subject Leaders. The argument is made that there is close agreement between Subject Leaders and Government agencies about the role a Subject Leader should perform. However, there is a need for greater clarity about what leadership means in this context and a need to support Subject Leaders' in their monitoring role.     

Impact of school inspections on improvement of schools—describing assumptions on causal mechanisms in six European countries

School inspection is used by most European education systems as a major instrument for controlling and promoting the quality of schools. Surprisingly, there is little research knowledge about how school inspections drive the improvement of schools and which types of approaches are most effective and cause the least unintended consequences. The study presented in this paper uses interviews with inspection officials and a document analysis to reconstruct the “program theories” (i.e. the assumptions on causal mechanisms, linking school inspections to their intended outcomes of improved teaching and learning) of Inspectorates of Education in six European countries. The results section of the paper starts with a summary of the commonalities and differences of these six national inspection models with respect to standards and thresholds used, to types of feedback and reporting, and to the sanctions, rewards and interventions applied to motivate schools to improve. Next, the intermediate processes through which these inspection models are expected to promote good education (e.g. through actions of stakeholders) are explained. In the concluding section, these assumptions are critically discussed in the light of research knowledge.     

Teacher Professional Standards: Controlling or developing teaching?

The issue of professional teaching standards has generated considerable interest from various quarters in Australia and elsewhere. In this paper, I am concerned with examining some of the claims made by advocates for the establishing of uniform standards for the teaching profession. To this end I identify three major claims derived from the Australian literature regarding the benefits that the application of a standards framework would make to the quality of teaching: the introduction of standards should improve the performance of teachers; the introduction of standards will improve the standing of teachers; and standards contribute to the on-going professional learning of teachers. Specifically, I argue that we need to look critically at the issue of professional standards for teachers and the claims that are made by their advocates. In particular, we need to ask whose interests are served by these standards and what are the effects of the imposition of these standards on teachers individually and collectively. Finally, we need to ask whether the standards judged as appropriate for today's teaching conditions and teachers will be equally appropriate in the future. Standards cannot and should not be frozen in time; they must be flexible to the changing conditions of teaching and learning as they occur inside and outside of schools.     

Pupils,the forgotten partners in education action zones

Education action zones (EAZs) involving local partnerships are one of the government's policies set up to help raise standards in pupils' performance and behaviour in areas of economic and social disadvantage. This article explores the nature of these partnerships and the fact that pupils are excluded. It reviews literature on student voice and describes interviews with 139 Year 8 pupils in two inner city zone schools to gain an insight into their perceptions about their learning. The data highlights some differences by gender and ethnicity and also the steps pupils believe are necessary if improvements are to be made. If zone schools are to live up to the promise of ‘empowering people and communities’, the paper argues pupils need to be included as stakeholders who shape the implementation of policy and become part of the solution to the difficulties EAZs are charged to address. The paper concludes by suggesting this will require a shift in the dominant epistemology to recognize pupils as co‐constructors of learning and a shift towards more democratic forms of relations in order to encourage pupil participation and enable their voices to be heard.     

From national policy to classroom practice: Promoting reading for pleasure in post‐primary English classrooms

In 2011, a national strategy Literacy and Numeracy for Learning and Life was published in the Republic of Ireland. One key aspect of the strategy was that it placed a renewed focus on reading for pleasure in post‐primary classrooms. The researchers involved in this article worked for the Professional Development Service for Teachers, a national, government‐funded professional development organisation. In response to the strategy, the researchers worked with teachers from nine post‐primary schools across the Republic of Ireland. Through working closely with these English teachers, it was possible to identify assumptions that the teachers made around their students' reading in post‐primary education. This article considers and challenges some of these assumptions and demonstrates what happened when the teachers were invited to do the same. In the course of the research, questions were also raised about some of the recommendations made within the national strategy, recommendations which were themselves based on contestable assumptions, assumptions such as the fact that boys prefer to read non‐fiction. The need for national policy to be rooted in research was, therefore, also identified. Finally, through feedback from teachers and students involved in the research project, the authors of this article were able to devise a series of recommendations for schools seeking to focus on reading for pleasure in the post‐primary English classroom.     

Steering in complex education systems. Why similar aims can have dramatically different results.

ABSTRACT

In the wake of neo-liberal informed global trends to set performance standards and intensify accountability, the Dutch government aimed for ‘raising standards for basic skills’. While the implementation of literacy standards was hardly noticed, the introduction of numeracy standards caused a major backlash in secondary schools, which ended in a failed introduction of a high stakes test. How can these major differences be explained? Inspired by Foucault’s governmentality concept a theoretical framework is developed to allow for detailed empirical research on steering processes in complex systems in which many actors are involved in educational decision-making. A mixed-methods multiple embedded case-study was conducted comprising nine school boards and fifteen secondary schools. Analyses unveil processes of responsibilisation, normalisation and emerging dividing practices. Literacy standards reinforced responsibilities of Dutch language teachers; for numeracy, school leadership created entirely new roles and responsibilities for teachers. Literacy standards were incorporated in an already used instrument which made implementation both subtle and inevitable. For numeracy, schools distinguished students by risk of not passing the new test affirming the disciplinary nature of schools in the process. While little changed to address teachers main concerns about students’ literacy skills, the failed introduction of the numeracy test usurped most resources.     

Online Dutch L2 learning in adult education: educators’ and providers’ viewpoints on needs,advantages and disadvantages

This study critically addresses the assumptions made by educators and providers in the field of Dutch second language (L2) acquisition about the online learning of Dutch L2. These include assumptions about advantages and disadvantages of online language learning, such as flexibility, learner autonomy, enhanced opportunities for remediation and differentiation versus disadvantages including the solitary learning mode, delayed feedback or high production costs. Even though stakeholders perceive a clear need for online Dutch L2 learning, and are aware of several advantages of online language learning, the current implementation level is still low. The perceived disadvantages might be a factor hindering the transition to online learning. A reorientation of the current provision of Dutch L2 courses is perceived as desirable, with self-directed, needs-oriented and customised learning as the key concepts. The outcomes shed light on perceptions that foster or hinder the development of online language courses for adult migrants, and could resonate with language professionals worldwide.     

Teaching standards and the promotion of quality teaching

Several countries have been developing teaching standards for the purpose of providing recognition and more attractive career pathways to teachers who attain these standards. These initiatives aim to lift the status of teaching as a profession and to provide stronger incentives for professional learning. This article describes the work of a project at the Australian Council for Educational Research, the ACER Portfolio Project, designed to develop methods whereby teachers can demonstrate how their practice meets the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers ( www.aitsl.edu.au/teach/standards ) at the ‘Highly Accomplished’ level and test them in schools for their validity and feasibility. The article describes how the Project developed an assessment framework that provided a representative sample of evidence about a teacher's practice covering the Standards, trialed portfolio tasks in schools with volunteer teachers and tested whether it was possible to train other teachers to assess their portfolio entries reliably and set standards for highly‐accomplished teaching.     

Policy-making in science systemic reform

This interpretative research portrays the turbulent conditions that are typical of my experiences as a science supervisor in the central office of a large urban school district in southeastern United States implementing science systemic reform. The research documents a dependence on an authoritarian view of policy-making that combined with procedures for making assignments allows stakeholders to undervalue the decisions that they make and increases the possibility for blaming others for their decisions. The impact of traditional and reform attitudes about curriculum and schools is described as well as efforts to resolve these conflicting views in the process of developing a middle school curriculum guide. The frustrating effect of the interactions of changing curriculum guides, changing instructional materials, and insufficient resources are described in a visit to a middle school science department meeting. The roles of time, understanding of systemic assumptions, and appropriate inquiry and communication skills are critical to the decision making process and little attention is given to address these issues. The result is that decisions end up being made without resolution of the differences among stakeholders leading to negative feelings and creating currents of frustration and distrust that undermine reform efforts.     

Does Russia need sex education? The views of stakeholders in three Russian regions

Objective To investigate the attitudes of the main stakeholders towards the introduction of sex education in schools in Russia.

Design Qualitative semi-structured interview study.

Setting Altai Krai, Volgograd Oblast, Moscow, Russian Federation.

Participants One hundred and fifty-three interviews with Intersectoral HIV/AIDS Committee members, government officials responsible for HIV policies and interventions, non-governmental organisation and private-sector representatives.

Main outcome measures Perception of and attitudes towards the introduction of sex education in schools.

Results Ninety-one per cent of stakeholders welcomed the introduction of sex education in schools and emphasised its importance for a child's personal development, public health, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS control, and pregnancy planning. The majority of respondents suggested providing different information for each age and grade. Despite the claimed support of interviewed policy-makers and main HIV stakeholders, there has been no action to introduce sex education. The majority of respondents were of the view that wider positive support through propaganda about health, sex and healthy lifestyle should be gained prior to introducing sex education in schools by addressing the stigma surrounding sexual issues.

Conclusions There was little opposition to the introduction of sex education in Russian schools expressed in our survey, but there are uncertainties regarding curriculum quality, teaching methods and the starting grade of teaching about sex, and there is a need to cover local sensitivities in the territories. These concerns could and should be addressed during curriculum design, development and programme implementation by the federal and local authorities. Wider involvement of educational specialists, peer-adults, health workers, celebrities and religious representatives in discussion of the curriculum could help prevent opposition to its implementation.

Contribution to knowledge Discussion of sex-related topics has been taboo in Russia and there has been little research into opinions on issues related to sex education. The contribution of this research is in gaining theoretical in-depth understanding of the attitudes of the interviewed stakeholders in Russia about the introduction of sex education in schools.     

Church schools,educational markets and the rural idyll

Researchers have begun to explore the role that faith schools play in contemporary educational markets but the emphasis to date has been on urban rather than rural contexts. This article approaches the issue of marketisation through a qualitative case-study comparison of two Anglican primary schools in contrasting rural localities in England and Wales. Engaging with a range of stakeholders, including parents and pupils, the article explores reasons why the schools were valued, drawing on wider constructions of childhood, religion and rurality. The consequences of the schools’ popularity on factors such as traffic, parking, school ethos and local community ties are also considered. The findings of the study problematise some of the prevalent assumptions about marketisation, including the role of social class and geography in these processes. As such, the article makes an important contribution to the sociological literature on faith schools, rural schools and educational markets.     

Old Wine In New Bottles? Researching Effective Schools in Developing Countries

This article looks at the current state of play in research into effective schools in the developing world and seeks to identify some of the underlying concerns arising from this work. School effectiveness research in developing countries will be contrasted with that within the developed world, and will be analysed in the context of the work of donor agencies and of the demands made by structural adjustment policies. A view of 'school effectiveness' which is contextually-related is posited, stressing the need to examine whether an examination of the effectiveness of schools should be considered in terms of the perceptions of different stakeholders, rather than in relation to an 'objective' checklist derived from research in a different cultural context, and often done years earlier.     

上海市高职高专职业发展教育调查分析

上海市高职高专院校职业发展教育工作在认识上处于感性向理性过渡阶段；硬件设施基本到位，内涵建设尚需加强；全程、全员重视的氛围有待形成；专业设置、教学实习、社会实践等环节职业发展教育渗透和体现不足；各校实施情况差距较大。作为一项系统工程，职业发展教育工作的开展需各方共同努力。尤其要提高认识，加强规划和专业建设，并尝试制定相关评估指标体系。     

Accessibility,easiness and standards

In setting the cut-scores on National Curriculum tests it is important to maintain standards. In the process of test development, both within and across years, changes are made to the style of the questions in order to increase their ‘accessibility’. This raises the question of whether a more accessible test should have higher cut-scores. Purely statistical definitions of equating are blind to differences between ‘accessibility’ and ‘easiness’ and cut-scores derived from statistical equating methods will be higher for a more accessible test. Arguments about the increased validity of the more accessible test are sometimes used to justify not raising the cut-scores as much as would be indicated by statistical methods. These arguments are shown to be equivalent to postulating that changing the accessibility is changing the construct measured by the test. Using a statistical measurement model can provide a rational basis for understanding accessibility and identifying types of question where accessibility issues are causing a measurement problem.     

(Mis)appropriations of criteria and standards‐referenced assessment in a performance‐based subject

This paper draws on semi‐structured interview data and participant observations of senior secondary Physical Education (PE) teachers and students at two school sites across 20 weeks of the school year. The data indicated that the teachers in this study made progressive judgements about students’ level of achievement across each unit of work without explicit or overt reference to the criteria and standards represented in the schools’ work programmes and in the Senior PE syllabus. The teachers’ justification for such an approach was that the criteria and standards had become for them sufficiently ‘internalised’. Determining students’ levels of achievement was for the teachers somewhat ‘intuitive’, being reliant on their memory of students’ performances, and influenced by the construct‐irrelevant affective characteristics of the students. It is argued in this paper that such construct‐irrelevance compromised the construct validity and possible inter‐rater reliability of the decisions made and advantaged some students and marginalised others on the basis of characteristics that were not specifically related to the learning expected from following the syllabus. The potential inequities of such an approach are discussed and suggestions are made for the consolidation of the validity and reliability of teachers’ judgements.     

Developing Performance Standards for Teacher Assessment by Policy Capturing

There is a need for assessment of teachers' competencies fostered by a growing attention given to accountability and quality improvement. Important questions are how good the demonstrated competencies of teachers should be for a satisfying assessment and how the different competencies should be weighted. Using a policy capturing method, in two rounds, nine stakeholders developed performance standards (or cut-off scores) for teacher assessment on eight criteria (or content standards) that resulted from an earlier study. Between the rounds, the panellists held a structured group discussion. Policy capturing proved to be a clear and useful method generating consistent judgements that can be described according to both a compensatory model and a conjunctive model. From the first to the second round, the consistency increased. However, while the panellists agreed to a substantial degree on the performance standards, they disagreed on the weights to be assigned to the criteria.     

Issues in researching the perspectives of deaf children

Research on children's perspectives has traditionally been neglected, influenced by adults' assumptions of children's vulnerability and incompetence. These assumptions produce methodological and ethical concerns about research with children, such as the need to protect the child from unethical research, validity of the data, and unequal research power relations. This paper reviews these points, with particular consideration to children who are deaf1. The first section examines the assumptions about children in research. These assumptions, as shown in the second section, have further implications for children with disabilities. Section III examines the challenges and issues that need to be taken into account when researching deaf children. Section IV then describes the methodological issues encountered in a study that examined the perspectives of 23 young deaf children in the US and UK.     

Comparing effects and side effects of different school inspection systems across Europe

In this article, different inspection models are compared in terms of their impact on school improvement and the mechanisms each of these models generates to have such an impact. Our theoretical framework was drawn from the programme theories of six countries’ school inspection systems (i.e. the Netherlands, England, Sweden, Ireland, the province of Styria in Austria and the Czech Republic). We describe how inspection models differ in the scheduling and frequency of visits (using a differentiated or cyclical approach), the evaluation of process and/or output standards, and the consequences of visits, and how these models lead to school improvement through the setting of expectations, the use of performance feedback and actions of the school's stakeholders. These assumptions were tested by means of a survey of principals in primary and secondary schools in these countries (n?=?2239). The data analysis followed a three-step approach: (1) confirmatory factor analyses, (2) path modelling and (3) fitting of multiple-indicator multiple-cause models. The results indicate that Inspectorates of Education that use a differentiated model (in addition to regular visits), in which they evaluate both educational practices and outcomes of schools and publicly report inspection findings of individual schools, are the most effective. These changes seem to be mediated by improvements in the schools’ self-evaluations and the schools' stakeholders’ awareness of the findings in the public inspection reports. However, differentiated inspections also lead to unintended consequences as principals report on narrowing the curriculum and on discouraging teachers from experimenting with new teaching methods.     

Validity and participation: implications for school comparison of Australia’s National Assessment Program

The National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) in Australia is a series of literacy and numeracy tests that are used for purposes of school comparison. This paper argues that a key question for this use lies in whether or not this is a reasonable, or valid, use of the test data. Using Kane’s argumentative approach to validity, this paper argues that the comparisons of the quality of student achievement made available on the My School Website have low validity due to the lack of regard to rates of participation in schools. In bringing together the literature that addresses the ‘new governance’ of education through testing and an approach to validity that addresses the technical aspects of test score interpretation, with the ethics of how test scores are used and applied, this study identifies validity as an important consideration in comparative analyses of student achievement data. The identification of the need to consider participation in such comparisons through the application of the argumentative approach to validity highlights the contribution of this article not only to the testing field but also to critical policy literature.     

Epistemological beliefs and leadership approaches among South African school principals

Studies on school restructuring and the leadership role of the principal in this process suggest that what has been the traditional leadership approach of the principal appears to be changing in relation to the substantial changes and school-wide reforms that are continually taking place in schools today. These school reform initiatives necessitate new and creative ways of thinking about our concept of educational leadership and its various approaches. It also became clear from the literature on leadership that a person’s assumption of various types of knowledge influence his or her leadership approach. The purpose of this study, based on a quantitative empirical study in selected South African schools, is to identify this impact of principals’ assumptions of knowledge on their leadership approaches. A total of 100 questionnaires with open-ended questions were sent electronically to school principals of randomly selected schools to assess the link between principals’ assumptions about the nature of knowledge and principal leadership. The t-test, Lambda test and an Analysis of Variances test were used to analyse the data. The findings confirm the relationship between core epistemological beliefs (EBs) and beliefs about leadership practices among South African school principals and provide substantial justification for using EBs in the study of school leadership.