Predictors of resilience in abused and neglected children grown-up: the role of individual and neighborhood characteristics

PURPOSE: This paper examines individual, family, and neighborhood level predictors of resilience in adolescence and young adulthood and describes changes in resilience over time from adolescence to young adulthood in abused and neglected children grown up. METHOD: We use documented cases of childhood physical and sexual abuse and neglect (n=676) from a Midwestern county area during the years 1967-1971 and information from official records, census data, psychiatric assessments, and self-reports obtained through 1995. Analyses involve logistic regressions, replicated with Mplus to test for possible contextual effects. RESULTS: Almost half (48%) of the abused and neglected children in adolescence and nearly one-third in young adulthood were resilient. Over half of those who were resilient in adolescence remained resilient in young adulthood, whereas 11% of the non-resilient adolescents were resilient in young adulthood. Females were more likely to be resilient during both time periods. Being white, non-Hispanic decreased and growing up in a stable living situation increased the likelihood of resilience in adolescence, but not in young adulthood. Stressful life events and a supportive partner promoted resilience in young adulthood. Neighborhood advantage did not exert a direct effect on resilience, but moderated the relationship between household stability and resilience in adolescence and between cognitive ability and resilience in young adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Ecological factors appear to promote or interfere with the emergence and stability of resilience following childhood maltreatment.     

A Longitudinal Study of Consistency and Change in Self-Esteem from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood

In a longitudinal study of 47 girls and 44 boys, developmental change in self-esteem (SE) was examined from early adolescence through late adolescence to early adulthood. Males tended to increase and females tended to decrease in SE over time. There was appreciable rank-order consistency in SE over time. Within each gender, the considerable individual differences in developmental trajectories were coherently related to personality characteristics independently assessed in early adolescence. Boys and girls with high SE possessed quite different personality characteristics in early adolescence; by early adulthood, although important differences remained, the personality characteristics associated with high SE were similar for the 2 sexes. Discussion focuses on the implications of our findings for the "consistency versus change" debate, the influence of gender-role socialization on SE development, and the importance of examining normative, gender-specific, and individual developmental change in SE.     

Association between early sexual abuse and adult HIV-risky sexual behaviors among community-recruited women.

OBJECTIVE: The first purpose was to determine whether sexual abuse involving penetration that occurred in childhood only, adolescence only, or both childhood and adolescence differently impacted whether community-recruited women had ever traded sex for money or drugs, their number of recent sex partners, and the number of times they had engaged in recent unprotected sex. The second purpose was to assess the mediating effects of adulthood rape, recent drug use, and recent sex with an injection drug user on these three HIV-risky sexual behaviors. METHOD: Women (n = 1,490) recruited from three US sites were questioned about their childhood and/or adolescent sexual abuse histories, adulthood rape experiences, recent drug use, and adult HIV-risky sexual behaviors via structured interviews. RESULTS: One-third of the women reported having experienced sexual abuse involving penetration in childhood and/or adolescence. Overall, regression analyses indicated a significant relationship between early sexual abuse and adult risky behaviors; rape in adulthood mediated this relationship for all three HIV-risky behaviors. Abuse that occurred in childhood only and abuse that occurred in both childhood and adolescence had a stronger impact on later risky behaviors than did abuse that occurred in adolescence only. CONCLUSIONS: Because childhood constitutes a critical period in individuals' sexual, social, and personal development, sexual abuse precipitated during this time may distort women's constructions of sex and sexuality. Women abused in childhood may therefore engage in HIV-risky sexual behaviors to a greater extent than women abused in adolescence as a result of these disruptions to their development. Rape in adulthood appears to intensify the effects of early sexual abuse,     

Longitudinally foretelling drug usage in adolescence: early childhood personality and environmental precursors

Drug usage in early adolescence (age 14) was related to concurrent and preschool personality characteristics for a sample of 54 girls and 51 boys. The personality concomitants and antecedents of drug use differed somewhat as a function of gender and the drug used. At age 14, for both sexes, the use of marijuana was related to ego undercontrol, while the use of harder drugs reflected an absence of ego-resiliency, with undercontrol also a contributing factor. At ages 3/4, subsequent adolescent drug usage in girls related to both undercontrol and lower ego-resiliency. In boys, adolescent drug usage related strongly, during their nursery school years, to undercontrol and with resiliency having no long-term implications. Early family environment related to adolescent drug usage in girls but not in boys. Drug usage in adolescent girls was related to homes earlier identified as unstructured and laissez-faire, where there was little pressure to achieve. Drug usage related to other substance use and, in boys, to IQ decline from age 11 to age 18. Implications of these results for contemporary views regarding adolescent drug usage are discussed.     

Adolescent maltreatment and its impact on young adult antisocial behavior

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: Childhood maltreatment is known to be a risk factor for a range of later problems, but much less is known about adolescent maltreatment. The present study aims to investigate the impact of adolescent maltreatment on antisocial behavior, while controlling for prior levels of problem behavior as well as sociodemographic characteristics. METHODS: Data are from the Rochester Youth Development Study, a cohort study of the development of problem behaviors in a sample of 1,000 urban youth followed from age 13 into adulthood. Subjects include 68% African American, 17% Hispanic, and 15% White youth. This analysis includes a maximum of 884 subjects, of whom 9.3% had substantiated maltreatment reports in adolescence. Among the maltreated adolescents, 14 experienced sex abuse, 36 experienced physical abuse, and 32 were neglected or emotionally abused. Outcomes explored in late adolescence (ages 16-18) and young adulthood (ages 20-22) include arrest, self-reported general and violent offending, and illicit drug use. Control variables include prior levels of these outcomes as well as sociodemographic characteristics like poverty, parent education, and caregiver changes. RESULTS: Logistic regression analysis determined that experiencing any substantiated maltreatment during adolescence increases the odds of arrest, general and violent offending, and illicit drug use in young adulthood, even controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and prior levels of problem behavior. Different types of adolescent maltreatment, including neglect, appear to produce similar adverse behavioral consequences. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent maltreatment necessitates increased attention in view of its enduring and potentially wide-ranging impact on the life span.     

Impacts of Adolescent and Young Adult Civic Engagement on Health and Socioeconomic Status in Adulthood

The present study examines links between civic engagement (voting, volunteering, and activism) during late adolescence and early adulthood, and socioeconomic status and mental and physical health in adulthood. Using nationally representative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a propensity score matching approach is used to rigorously estimate how civic engagement is associated with outcomes among 9,471 adolescents and young adults (baseline M_age = 15.9). All forms of civic engagement are positively associated with subsequent income and education level. Volunteering and voting are favorably associated with subsequent mental health and health behaviors, and activism is associated with more health-risk behaviors and not associated with mental health. Civic engagement is not associated with physical health.     

Neural Correlates of Performance Monitoring During the Transition to Young Adulthood

Cognitive challenges during transition to adulthood are generally high and require particular skills, such as self‐control, performance evaluation, and behavioral adjustment for success in everyday living. However, age and sex differences in timing and efficiency of brain maturational processes in the early twenties are not well known. We used a go/no‐go paradigm and fMRI to focus on the neural processes underlying response inhibition and performance monitoring during the transition from late adolescence (aged 18–19) to young adulthood (aged 23–25). During performance monitoring, late adolescents showed more activation in right inferior frontal gyrus than young adults, while males showed more activation in left inferior parietal lobe than females. No effects of age and sex were found for response inhibition. Our findings suggest that age and sex‐related differences in neural basis of performance monitoring continue to change between late adolescence and young adulthood.     

Early Warning Signs of Functional Illiteracy: Predictors in Childhood and Adolescence

Early childhood, middle childhood, and early adolescence determinants of functional literacy in adulthood are investigated, using 20-year longitudinal data from a sample of black children of teenaged mothers from the Baltimore metropolitan area. Document literacy was assessed by a test that consisted of a subset of items of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) adult literacy test. The Baltimore sample is compared to the NAEP sample. Family environmental factors, early childhood developmental level, and educational career factors were considered as predictors of young adulthood literacy. Preschool cognitive and behavioral functioning is highly predictive of literacy in young adulthood, even when the effects of family environmental characteristics, including living arrangements, the quality of the home environment, maternal education, and income, are controlled. Grade failure in elementary school is also associated with literacy, but this effect disappears when the measure of preschool abilities is controlled. Family environmental factors that are predictive of literacy include maternal education, family size in early childhood, maternal marital status, and income in middle childhood and early adolescence. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.     

Reducing Risk for Substance Use by Economically Disadvantaged Young Men: Positive Family Environments and Pathways to Educational Attainment

Using prospective, longitudinal data spanning 10 years (age = 10–20) from a study of 295 economically disadvantaged males, the current investigation evaluated a developmental model that links early family environment and later educational aspirations, extracurricular activities, and educational attainment to substance use in early adulthood. The results indicate that a positive family environment during adolescence (low family conflict, high family warmth, and effective child management) predicted educational involvements during adolescence that promoted educational attainment during early adulthood. Finally, higher levels of educational attainment were associated with less substance use in early adulthood, even after controlling for adolescent substance use. These findings suggest that positive parenting promotes educational achievements that increase resilience to substance use for economically disadvantaged males.     

Child and Adolescent Predictors of Personality in Early Adulthood

This study investigated development of the Big Five personality traits from early childhood into adulthood. An initial group of 137 Swedish children were assessed eight times between ages 2 and 29 years. Initial decreases in extraversion leveled off in early adulthood; agreeableness and conscientiousness increased from ages 2 to 29; neuroticism initially increased, leveled off in later childhood and adolescence, and decreased throughout early adulthood; while openness to experience showed an initial increase, then decreased and leveled off in early adulthood. Individual developmental trajectories varied significantly, particularly in relation to gender. Personality traits became increasingly stable, and the fact that childhood scores predicted scores in adulthood indicated that personalities are fairly stable across this portion of the life span.     

Temperamental sensitivity to early maltreatment and later family cohesion for externalizing behaviors in youth adopted from foster care

Children in foster care frequently have histories of physical/sexual abuse and neglect, increasing their risk for externalizing behaviors (EB; e.g., aggression). According to the differential susceptibility theory, children with reactive temperaments (e.g., negative emotionality) may be particularly vulnerable to early maltreatment, but may also benefit the most from environmental enrichment such as family cohesion. In a high-risk longitudinal sample of 82 children adopted from foster care in Los Angeles County from 1996 and 2001, we examined predictions of EB from childhood to adolescence/young adulthood from temperament, preadoption maltreatment, and adoptive family cohesion. Overall, results from generalized linear models and generalized estimating equations (GEE) did not support differential susceptibility theory – specifically, youth with early reactive temperament did not exhibit heightened sensitivity to maltreatment nor to later adoptive family cohesion. Instead, reactive temperament was associated with higher EB at initial adoptive placement and escalating EB across childhood, controlling for age, gender, race-ethnicity, preadoption maltreatment, and adoptive family cohesion. Preadoption maltreatment history was unrelated to baseline EB, although sexual abuse history predicted escalating childhood EB post-adoption, whereas exposure to family violence (e.g., domestic violence) inversely predicted EB over time. By late adolescence/young adulthood 11–15 years post-adoption, rates of arrest and substance use in this sample were relatively comparable to normative populations of youth, although older age of adoption predicted more substance use in late adolescence/young adulthood. Findings highlight early reactive temperament and preadoption maltreatment as important risk factors to target for ameliorating patterns of EB growth in the first few years of adoption.     

Adolescent risk factors for child maltreatment

We investigate adolescent risk factors, measured at both early and late adolescence, for involvement in child maltreatment during adulthood. Comprehensive assessments of risk factors for maltreatment that use representative samples with longitudinal data are scarce and can inform multilevel prevention. We use data from the Rochester Youth Development Study, a longitudinal study begun in 1988 with a sample of 1,000 seventh and eighth graders. Participants have been interviewed 14 times and, at the last assessment (age 31), 80% were retained. Risk factors represent 10 developmental domains: area characteristics, family background/structure, parent stressors, exposure to family violence, parent–child relationships, education, peer relationships, adolescent stressors, antisocial behaviors, and precocious transitions to adulthood. Maltreatment is measured by substantiated reports from Child Protective Services records. Many individual risk factors (20 at early adolescence and 14 at later adolescence) are significantly, albeit moderately, predictive of maltreatment. Several developmental domains stand out, including family background/structure, education, antisocial behaviors, and precocious transitions. In addition, there is a pronounced impact of cumulative risk on the likelihood of maltreatment. For example, only 3% of the youth with no risk domains in their background at early adolescence were involved in later maltreatment, but for those with risk in 9 developmental domains the rate was 45%. Prevention programs targeting youth at high risk for engaging in maltreatment should begin during early adolescence when risk factors are already at play. These programs need to be comprehensive, capable of addressing the multiple and interwoven nature of risk that is associated with maltreatment.     

Continuity and Discontinuity in Perceptions of Family Relationships From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

The present 8‐year longitudinal study examined how multiple aspects of family relationships change across the transition from adolescence (M_age = 15 years) to young adulthood (M_age = 22 years) among 821 individuals. Results showed that there was more discontinuity than continuity in family relationships across this transition. Whereas a normative decline was evident in all measured aspects of family relationships during adolescence, this decline persisted for only a few dimensions of family relationships during young adulthood. Other aspects of family relationships stabilized or rebounded. There was little variation in these trajectories as a function of ethnicity or gender, suggesting that these changes in family relationships are generally normative. Results suggest that the transition to adulthood is a period of significant transformation in family relationships.     

AreYoung children susceptible to the false-memory illusion?

False memories have typically been found to be more common during early childhood than during later childhood or adulthood. However, fuzzy-trace theory makes the counterintuitive prediction that some powerful forms of adult false memory will be greatly attenuated in early childhood, an important example being the Deese/Roediger/McDermott (DRM) illusion. Three developmental studies of this illusion (N = 282) found that (1) it was at near-floor levels in young children, (2) it was still below adult levels by early adolescence, and (3) the low levels of the illusion in young children may be due to failure to "get the gist" of DRM materials.     

College Confidence with ADD: The Ultimate Success Manual of ADD Students From Applying to Academics,Preparation to Social Success and Everything Else You Need to Know. Sandler,M. (2008)

A 15-year phenomenological case study of an exceptional female from age 15 through 30 was focused on exploring the subjective experience of development during adolescence and young adulthood, with attention to how giftedness and context interacted. The main focus became her response to trauma, which was revealed early in the study. Data, including recollected childhood experiences, were gathered through letters, e-mail, face-to-face interaction, and journals and essays from her troubled adolescence. The central phenomenon that emerged is given particular attention: that giftedness was both an asset and a vulnerability throughout these years, certainly as she struggled in the aftermath of trauma and developed strategies for surviving and healing. The struggles of the subject included dealing with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The concepts of overexcitability and positive disintegration are used to frame some findings.     

在迷失与探寻中成长——探析《月宫》中马可的自我同一性发展

美国后现代小说家保罗·奥斯特在小说<月宫>中创造了一个不断探寻自我的年轻人形象马可·佛格.运用自我同一性理论,探究马可从青年到成年的过渡时期,在一连串生活变故中所经历的人格发展的几个不同阶段,并解析导致其转变的原因.     

Does poor school performance cause later psychosocial problems among children in foster care? Evidence from national longitudinal registry data

Research has shown that children in foster care are a high-risk group for adverse economic, social and health related outcomes in young adulthood. Children's poor school performance has been identified as a major risk factor for these poor later life outcomes. Aiming to support the design of effective intervention strategies, this study examines the hypothesized causal effect of foster children's poor school performance on subsequent psychosocial problems, here conceptualized as economic hardship, illicit drug use, and mental health problems, in young adulthood. Using the potential outcomes approach, longitudinal register data on more than 7500 Swedish foster children born 1973–1978 were analyzed by means of doubly robust treatment-effect estimators. The results show that poor school performance has a negative impact on later psychosocial problems net of observed background attributes and potential selection on unobservables, suggesting that the estimated effects allow for causal interpretations. Promotion of school performance may thus be a viable intervention path for policymakers and practitioners interested in improving foster children's overall life chances.     

Socio-Economic Gradients and Disability During The Transition to Young Adulthood: A Longitudinal Survey and Register Study in Norway

The study aimed to investigate trends and explanatory factors for socio-economic inequalities associated with disability during the transition to young adulthood. A sample of 2606 participants (56% females and 44% males) was prospectively followed from adolescence to young adulthood. Disability status, age, gender, mental health problems, scholastic competence and social acceptance were measured from the longitudinal survey Young in Norway, while socio-economic indicators such as participants’ and their parents’ levels of education, annual income, unemployment and welfare benefits were extracted from the National Population Register in Norway. Regression models were applied to estimate associations between disability and socio-economic outcomes. The findings show that disabled adolescents have a significantly greater risk of achieving lower levels of education and are unemployed and over-represented in welfare benefits during the transition to young adulthood. Most of these associations between disability and socio-economic outcomes were explained by mental wellbeing and self-perceptions. The study suggests that interventions addressing mental wellbeing and social competence might reduce the development of socio-economic inequalities among young people with disability.     

Contributions of Reward Sensitivity to Ventral Striatum Activity Across Adolescence and Early Adulthood

It was examined how ventral striatum responses to rewards develop across adolescence and early adulthood and how individual differences in state‐ and trait‐level reward sensitivity are related to these changes. Participants (aged 8–29 years) were tested across three waves separated by 2 years (693 functional MRI scans) in an accelerated longitudinal design. The results confirmed an adolescent peak in reward‐related ventral striatum, specifically nucleus accumbens, activity. In early to mid‐adolescence, increases in reward activation were related to trait‐level reward drive. In mid‐adolescence to early adulthood decreases in reward activation were related to decreases in state‐level hedonic reward pleasure. This study demonstrates that state‐ and trait‐level reward sensitivity account for reward‐related ventral striatum activity in different phases of adolescence and early adulthood.     

The relationship between exposure to family violence in childhood and post-traumatic stress symptoms in young adulthood: The mediating role of social support

BackgroundExtensive research has examined the relationship between exposure to family violence and its long-term mental health effects. Social support has been found to moderate this relationship, but there is a dearth of research on its mediating role.ObjectivesThe article presents the results of a study on the relationship between witnessing interparental violence and experiencing parental violence during childhood and adolescence on the one hand, and post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) during young adulthood on the other. In addition, the article presents results on the role of social support as a mediator in this relationship.Method, participants, and settingA cross-sectional survey was conducted among 516 Israeli university and college students (90.7% female, and 9.3% male; M age = 24.9, SD = 2.7) using a retrospective, self-administered questionnaire.ResultsThe results revealed that exposure to each pattern of family violence (i.e., witnessing interparental violence and experiencing parental violence) predicted higher levels of PTSS. Furthermore, social support was found to partially mediate the relationship between exposure to family violence during childhood and adolescence and current PTSS as well as its four symptoms, i.e., depression, sleep disturbance, dissociation, and anxiety.ConclusionsThe results of the current study highlight the important role of social support in the association between adversities experienced early in life and young adulthood outcomes. The findings are interpreted on the basis of Conservation of Resources Theory (Hobfoll et al., 1990), which served as the conceptual framework for the study. The limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.