INTER‐UNIVERSITY CO‐OPERATION IN EUROPE: THE IMPACT OF REGIONAL UNIVERSITY CO‐OPERATION ON THE PROMOTION OF EAST‐WEST RELATIONS

The development of inter‐university co‐operation in Europe is conditioned by such major sets of events'as the evolution of the EC, growing environmental awareness, and the recent revolutionary changes in eastern Europe. Attempts to develop inter‐university cooperation between eastern and western European universities must still cope with the heritage of some forty‐five years of a divided Europe. Such strong points of the eastern European universities as research capacity should be recognized. A very good way to further inter‐university co‐operation on a broad front is through interregional co‐operation, particularly that linking contiguous regions on the East‐West European divide.     

TYPES OF ACADEMIC EXCHANGES AND TARGET GROUPS: BALANCES AND IMBALANCES

The article considers, on one hand, the need to increase East‐West and West‐East academic exchanges in Europe, and on the other, to reduce or to rationalize imbalances. The three major segments of university populations, students, faculty members, and administrators, are each examined with regard to participation in exchanges, and pertinent suggestions are made. The author particularly insists on the importance of involving university administrators in exchange programmes even to the extent of moving them physically to other universities for stays of varying length. In closing, he evokes the setting up of the European Association of International Exchange Administrators.     

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The author sums up the discussions which took place during the CHER conference of November 1990 by briefly identifying the main features of the discussions. Western and eastern European researchers in higher education were able to meet on terms of equality to discuss problems of higher education research. While the problems on both sides of the divide reflect many similarities, it is obvious that the researchers from the East have had to work under much harsher conditions than those in the West and that they have not been able to keep up with the scholarly literture on higher education research generated in the West. Given the realities of today, researchers from the East will have to devote most of their time and resources to short‐time practical projects linked to immediate and pressing reform projects in their respective countries. The western colleagues must be aware of these problems and be willing to lend assistance in a number of ways.     

EXPERIENCES AND INSIGHTS IN A TEMPUS/TACIS PROJECT IN THE UKRAINE

The author is the Director of a TEMPUS/TACIS project on university administration linking the National Technical University of Ukraine, on one hand, and the Aachen University of Technology and the Delft University of Technology, on the other. He presents this project as the centre point of a discussion whereby he first traces the origins of the European Union TEMPUS programme and then develops a philosophy of East‐West Co‐operation. For him, it is not acceptable to expect eastern European higher education institutions to simply copy western higher education institutions but to adapt what is useful to them from the western experience to their local realities bearing in mind that higher education in the West too is undergoing transition in a number of ways. In light of this project, the author criticizes certain aspects of TEMPUS practices and suggests improvements so as to make TEMPUS projects more efficient. He also declares that in many circumstances the time limit of three years per project is insufficient.     

ACADEMY RESEARCH INSTITUTES AND UNIVERSITIES

Up until now, CEPES, the UNESCO European Centre for Higher Education, was more concerned about universities than about the academies of sciences in the countries making up the region it serves, even though both types of institutions do research. Although university teaching was traditionally linked to research as in the Humboldtian model of the university, the two functions became increasingly separate in eastern Europe. Now, as eastern and central Europe undergo transition to democracy and market economies, it is perhaps time to consider a redefinition and possibly a fusion of roles with academies and universities co‐operating closely for excellence in teaching and in research.     

A NEW PROJECT FOR EUROPE: COPERNICUS

The ecological problems facing the world today are of such a nature and magnitude that no country can hope to solve them alone. Pollution knows no political boundaries, and the dimensions of the problems involved call for concerted international co‐operation. At a meeting of CRE (the Standing Conference of Rectors, Presidents, and Vice‐Chancellors of the European Universities) held in Warsaw in June 1988, a meeting to which non‐member rectors from the universities of Eastern Europe were invited, the idea of launching a project to bring together the universities and industry in all the European countries for a concerted attack on environmental problems was proposed and accepted. Named after Copernicus, the Renaissance Polish scientist, whose education and contributions to science represented, for his day, a stellar example of international East‐West educational and scientific co‐operation, the resulting programme will act in three areas: research, education, and information, and will stress the continental scope of environmental problems and the interdisciplinarity of possible solutions. COPERNICUS is important from a scientific, a practical, and a political point of view. The first problems to be tackled will probably be the excessive pollution of the Baltic Sea and the complex environmental and ecological problems of heavily industrialized regions in Europe, both those which like Silesia are still productive, and those which are currently in serious decline, but searching for new opportunities.

     

THE CHALLENGE OF INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE: DIALOGUE AND INTERACTIVE STEERING

With reference to the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands, the author elaborates the argument that universities are capable of anticipating social and economic change, that indeed it is their duty not only to adapt to these changes but to anticipate and to influence them. A brief outline of the history of universities is given, and the situation of universities in western Europe, specifically in the Netherlands, is contrasted with that in eastern and central Europe, specifically Hungary. Currently, European universities, West and East, are headed towards the same future. This future is being influenced by a number of external factors, particularly technological change, which places a premium on strategic planning, interdisciplinarity with regard to research and teaching, and interuniversity co‐operation at national and international levels.     

HUNGARIAN ACADEMIC CO‐OPERATION WITH THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE UNITED STATES

Academic co‐operation between higher education institutions in Hungary and those of western Europe, on the one hand, and those of the United States of America, on the other, are compared. Hungarian co‐operation with western European higher education, particularly the European Union countries, has been far more developed than that with the United States. The greater success and scope of co‐operation with western European higher education institutions is attributed to the comprehensiveness of the TEMPUS Programme of the European Union countries and its careful and well‐planned responses to the problems of the central and eastern European region. However, Hungarian higher education could gain a great deal from more intensive co‐operation with American higher education. Efforts should be made to encourage such co‐operation including the greater involvement of American higher education institutions in TEMPUS projects.     

IMPROVING TEACHING AND LEARNING IN AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES ‐‐ STAFF (FACULTY) DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AS A FIELD OF CO‐OPERATION BETWEEN EUROPEAN AND AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES

In virtually all the countries of the world, the need for staff‐development programmes for university and other higher education teachers has been recognized. Because the developed countries of Europe and of North America have a head start in the domain, specialists from these countries have frequently been called upon to create and to offer staff‐development programmes in the universities of developing countries. This article discusses the appropriateness of European conceptions of staff‐development for African universities. Concluding that Euro‐centric staff‐developers and pre‐packaged European programmes are not appropriate, that they run the risk of becoming a form of cultural neo‐colonialism, the author considers ways in which European specialists can collaborate with their African colleagues in the structuring of staff‐development programmes that are not only African‐centred but are geared to the real needs of African universities as they are perceived by Africans themselves. If the author's suggestions are accepted, African universities will be able to make use of those aspects of European staff‐development concepts and programmes which have universal value without having to accept European cultural tutelage along with them.     

美、苏两国有关欧洲集体安全问题的交锋（1954-1957）

1954年2月10日柏林四国外长会议上苏联首次正式提出有关建立欧洲集体安全体系的建议,使欧洲集体安全问题成为了当时人们关注的焦点问题之一,直至1958年美苏在柏林问题上的再次紧张而走向平息。根据有关档案研究发现,美苏两国在这一问题存在着根本性的分歧,苏联打算通过建立欧洲集体安全体系,“绕开”东西方争执已久的德国问题,保持欧洲和德国的分裂现状,巩固苏联在欧洲的势力范围和对东欧的控制,实现阻止联邦德国加入北约、削弱西方联盟、将美国排除在欧洲之外等目标;美国则主张先让德国在自由选举的基础上完成统一后再考虑欧洲集体安全问题,而且统一后的德国必须加入北约,反对因建立所谓欧洲集体安全而削弱西方阵营的实力。双方的分歧使美苏双方在柏林四国外长会议以及随后的会议上在建立欧洲集体安全的议题上都无法达成共识。究其原因在于,一是美苏两国都没有真正打算放弃以实力为基础的抗衡政策;二是双方在德国问题上的分歧导致美苏双方在欧洲集体安全问题上难以形成一致,特别是在德国问题和欧洲集体安全问题的解决顺序上观点完全不同。     

De l'Ingénieur Europeen: Le point de vue d'un industriel français

1992 will witness a big market for European engineers: but what kind of engineers? From what kind of schools? With what kind of diploma? What kind of freedom will there be for working as an engineer? Some answers are given from the French point of view. So many differences exist between European countries, that a good definition of ‘engineer’ is necessary. The French Commission for the National title of engineer (CTI) is very clear about the rules for becoming an ‘engineer’, and the need to avoid confusion in the European market and help firms. Good relationships are needed between ‘les écoles d'ingenieurs’, universities and professionals, to realize homogeneous courses and training throughout Europe.     

Competing Higher Education Futures in a Globalising World

Globalisation, together with readier access to capability‐enhancing technologies and to technological insights once restricted to a few leading economies, are resulting in greater competition within Europe, and more widely within the developed world, for influence of all kinds (not just influence over the choices that foreign students make about the Higher Education courses on offer to them from Europe, but also influence of a more overtly imperialist kind, extending to the policies, incomes and futures of others). This article looks at trends in one important market for European Higher Education, the Middle East (particularly the GCC countries), which has many providers from North America and Australia. As observed by the late Edward Said, the USA is particularly forceful in the Middle East. Its technological superiority is accompanied by fervour to introduce American methods and curricula, and strong belief in their merit, reminiscent of the belief of the old French empire that ‘France had a “mission civilisatrice”, to civilize the natives”. The danger, highlighted in a recent UNESCO report ‘New Ignorances, New Literacies’, is that the natives will not be listened to. Is Europe listening more or less than the USA, and is it being listened to? Despite attention‐gaining initiatives such as the proposed European Institute of Technology, EIT, and the commitment of EU governments to the Lisbon goals on competitiveness, there are indications of a drop in the influence of European Higher Education institutions in the Middle East. This paper explores the kinds of issues that may be at work, and the implications for European Higher Education policy.     

HIGHER EDUCATION REFORM AND WESTERN ASSISTANCE IN HUNGARY: THE TEMPUS EXPERIENCE

The TEMPUS programme was started in the early 1990's in a unique political climate in eastern European countries. It was a very considerable innovation as a complex and efficient higher education programme, targeted at the real needs of the recipients. As no higher education strategies existed at that time in the region, TEMPUS was not able to support comprehensive structural changes, at least in Hungary, in the university sphere. Its unique success in terms of efficiency can be traced back to the presence of the European dimension, the professional management of the Programme, and the very appropriate emotional challenge it has presented both in the East and the West.     

简评斯大林的社会主义建设模式

斯大林模式是斯大林统治苏联时期形成的一种高度集中的政治经济体制,它对苏联及其它社会主义国家产生了巨大深远的影响,也促使世界形势发生了重大变化。第二次世界大战后,东欧和中国照搬苏联模式,致使国际社会主义运动遭到严重挫折＂,斯大林模式＂成为东欧剧变、苏联解体的重要原因。     

文化认同与东亚共同体的构建

欧洲一体化建设的成功使得越来越多的人关注区域共同体的建设,东亚共同体的构建也成为东亚国家众多有识之士的奋斗目标。但是,相对于欧洲一体化的成功,东亚共同体的构建却要艰难的多,主要原因之一就在于目前东亚各国缺乏文化上的认同。如果要想成功地实现东亚共同体的构建,文化认同是各国需要共同努力解决的一个重要问题。     

Value priorities in the United Germany: Teachers and students from East and West compared

A study of the value orientations of teachers and students of the teaching profession was conducted in East and West Germany based on a theory that discriminates ten types of values (universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, security, power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction). Samples of 188 West German and 204 East German teachers as well as 377 West German and 274 East German students were studied using a 56-item value survey. Multivariate analyses of variance showed that:

1. Values in the East and the West can be seen as opposing each other most strongly on the polarity of self-direction vs. security with the former more important in the West, the latter in the East;
2. Differences between teachers and students (regardless of area of origin) are at least equally large as those between East and West.

From a cross-national perspective, however, the differences between East and West appear less substantial: Both East and West German samples exhibit the general West European profile which contrasts with samples from East Europe and around the world. They attribute high importance to values that express concern for others and openness to change and low importance to values that emphasize the status quo. Implications of the findings for educational policies in East Germany are discussed.     

THE ROMANIAN ACADEMY AND THE FREEDOM OF SCIENCE

In common with the Academies of Science of the other European countries, the Romanian Academy traces its origins back to a local scholarly society founded in 1795 in Sibiu to promote the study of the Romanian Language and of Romanian history. Such origins were as much influenced by Herder's stress on the importance of local culture as by Liebnitz's urging that all the great rulers of Europe create academies of science to be in the service of the state. In common with the Academies in the other eastern and central European countries, the Romanian Academy suffered under communism but was re‐established with a new lease on life after the collapse of the communist regime. The oldest international non‐governmental organization committed to international scientific co‐operation is the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) that was created in 1931. Its Standing Committee on the Free Circulation of Scientists (SCFCS), created in 1963, contributed to liberalizing science in the communist countries and in bringing about the rebirth of the Academies in eastern and central Europe after the collapse of communism. The Romanian Academy was a founding member of ICSU.     

论1918-1945年间苏联与东欧国家的经济关系

冷战时期的经互会中,苏联与东欧成员国的关系是主导,但是分别考察1945年以前苏联和东欧国家的对外经济关系,得出的结论是“战前（二战前）苏联与东欧几乎无联系：1945年前德国一直是东欧贸易的中心”。苏联和东欧地缘相近,而经济关系却如此疏远,其中还交织着双边之间的主权纠纷和意识形态猜疑,不可避免地给后来的经互会埋下了许多不稳定因素。     

Internationalisation policies: about new trends and contrasting paradigms

In this article, internationalisation of higher education is analysed as a response to globalisation. A distinction is made between two paradigms in internationalisation: competition and cooperation. The different approaches to internationalisation in the Anglo-Saxon countries on the one hand and in continental Europe on the other are analysed along the lines of these two paradigms. With respect to the role and position of continental Europe in the global higher education market the following questions are explored. Is there a real higher education market in Europe and if so for whom? Should and can European higher education actually compete internationally, and if so, is cooperation the right strategy to do so? It will be concluded that the effectiveness of cooperation and especially that of international university consortia in international competition is largely still hidden in the future. Furthermore, many questions still remain to be answered in order to improve our understanding of the international higher education market in terms of its segmentation and the related diversification of the higher education sector and its functions.     

THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW EUROPEAN HOME

This article focusses on the types of assistance which the universities in the western European countries could render to their peers in Eastern Europe. It explores the ways in which this aid would contribute to the elaboration of the transnational culture of the New European Home. Stress is laid on the need to integrate the educational and research activities of European universities for the training of new intellectual élites. A considerable expansion of student exchanges is suggested, particularly the training of foreign language teachers in foreign universities. The universities should rediscover and lay stress on humanism and end their participation in military research. They should prepare bachelor's and master's degree holders capable of working as teachers in other types of higher education institutions and as researchers and theorists in various types of cultural establishments. The article concludes with an examination of the scope and the operation of the International Environmental and Cultural Centre of Norway which is operated by the Byelorussian State University and the Folk High School of Agder, Norway. This centre is cited as an example of the type of inter‐university centre which should be established all over Europe so as to further the integration of European universities.