Title IX and Retaliation: The Impact of Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education on Higher Education

In 2005, the United States Supreme Court rendered a closely divided opinion that extends the protections against discrimination provided by Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 to include a private cause of action for retaliation in Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education. Therefore, “whistleblowers,” or employees who report allegedly discriminatory practices, can file suit against employers who retaliate against them on the basis of their complaints under the auspices of Title IX, which prohibits discrimination “on the basis of sex” by recipients of federal education funds. Unlike other federal anti-discrimination laws such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, retaliation is not expressly mentioned within the text of Title IX, and the Supreme Court reasoned that the broad language of the statute encompasses implied protections against retaliation, regardless of the gender of the employee who alleges retaliatory action. As a result of Jackson, the first generation of litigation against colleges and universities under this expanded standard has begun to navigate the federal courts. This article analyzes the Supreme Court’s opinion in Jackson and the related cases representing the first application of the retaliation standard articulated therein to colleges and universities. The article concludes with suggestions for insulation from liability associated with alleged retaliation claims against administrators and educational institutions.     

‘Dangerous presumptions’: how single‐sex schooling reifies false notions of sex,gender, and sexuality

Due to the recent changes in federal regulations about gender equity in education in the USA, some policy makers have resurrected single‐sex public education. Because single‐sex schooling ignores the complexity of sex, gender, and sexuality, it sets up a ‘separate but equal’ system that is anything but. Discounting the ways in which gender is negotiated, constructed, and performed, and the variability of anatomical sex, current arguments for single‐sex schooling reify the false binaries of sex and gender, rely on assumptions of heteronormativity and, in turn, negate the existence of multiple sexes, genders, and sexual orientations.     

Boys,Girls, or Unisex? An Analysis of the Title IX Arguments in G.G. v. Gloucester County School Board

This article analyzes the arguments presented in recent federal court appeals concerning the rights of transgender students in America's public schools. Specifically, the applicability of Title IX and the Equal Protection Clause of the US Constitution to the rights of transgender students is examined.     

The problem of education‐based discrimination

While the research, theory and policy literature on race, class and gender discrimination in education is extensive, the problem of education‐based discrimination itself has been widely overlooked. Indeed, the dominant ideologies of meritocracy and human capital (into which we are inculcated throughout our lives by schools, media and the state) proclaim that higher levels of education are and should be linked with greater reward. In a world where education is regularly invoked to legitimate inequality, it can appear nonsensical even to raise concern about education‐based discrimination as a matter of social injustice. We need, however, to challenge those who have taught us not to see what has essentially become an elephant in our living room. Otherwise, we will find ourselves unable ever to use our public systems of education for universal emancipation and empowerment.     

Mobility,citizenship, and “American women on the move” in the 1977 International Women’s Year torch relay

This essay examines the 1977 International Women’s Year torch relay from Seneca Falls to Houston to demonstrate the rhetoricity of mobility and theorize running as a mode of public address. The relay used the velocity of running to centralize athleticism and the female athlete as a crucial site for liberal feminist citizenship claims in 1977 in the context of Title IX and the struggle over the Equal Rights Amendment. The runners’ movement through space and place advanced a discursive performance of citizenship as they traversed the South. This analysis reveals mobility as a theoretical framework for rhetorical scholars interested in space, place, citizenship, and social movement.     

Preschoolers’ Perceptions of Gender Appropriate Toys and their Parents’ Beliefs About Genderized Behaviors: Miscommunication,Mixed Messages,or Hidden Truths?

Young children construct understandings of gender during the preschool years. They accurately apply common gender stereotypes to toys by the time they are three and readily predict their parents’ opinions about gender-typical and cross-gender play. This study involved 3- and 5-year-old children in identifying “girl toys” and “boy toys”. It also asked them to predict their parents’ reactions to their choices of gender-specific toys. These children’s parents were surveyed in an effort to describe their preferences about gender-specific toys and behaviors. Responses indicated that, in spite of evidence that many of these parents reject common gender stereotypes, their children predicted parents would consistently apply these stereotypes as reflected by their approval or disapproval of children’s choices to play with gender stereotyped or cross-gender toys. The mis-match between parents’ self-described beliefs and children’s perceptions of the messages they have received about genderized play are discussed.

英语中的性别歧视与大学英语教学

语言中的性别歧视是一个普遍存在的现象,它不单是语言本身的问题,也是对社会歧视现象的反映.本文从称呼、语意贬降、词序等几个方面对英语中的性别歧视现象进行了阐述,并指出大学英语教师在教学中如何尽量回避和淡化这些歧视.     

英语词汇性别差异现象初探

从社会语言学和语用学的角度论述英语词汇性别差异现象,并简要指出产生这些差异的社会和文化根源。     

Are There Gender Differences in How Students Write Their Essays? An Analysis of Writing Processes

This study compared gender groups on the processes used in writing essays in an online assessment. Middle‐school students from four grades responded to essays in two persuasive subgenres, argumentation and policy recommendation. Writing processes were inferred from four indicators extracted from students’ keystroke logs. In comparison to males, on average females not only obtained higher essay scores but differed from males in their writing processes. Females entered text more fluently, engaged in more macro and local editing, and showed less need to pause at locations associated with planning (e.g., between bursts of text, at sentence boundaries). That these differences were detected after controlling for essay scores suggests that they cannot be attributed solely to disparities in group writing skill.     

俄语称呼语中的性别歧视研究

与众多语言一样,俄语中的性别歧视现象久已存在,在称呼语中的表现尤为突出称呼语中的性别歧视不仅能够凸显交际双方的性别角色和社会地位,而且可以直接反映俄罗斯民族的社会规约、历史沉积、文化理念、价值观念、思维方式和民族习性。文章在梳理与整合俄语称呼语中各种性别歧视语料的基础上,指出了社会对于男女两性的不同期望与心理认同．并对性别歧视产生的原因作了简要的分析。     

Progress For Women In Academe,Yet Inequities Persist: Evidence from NSOPF:99

In this study, we use data from the 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:99) to measure the unexplained wage gap between men and women in academe. We pay particular attention to how these unexplained wage gaps have changed over time by comparing the results from the 1999 survey to published results from previous national surveys and test for the sensitivity of these findings to the method used for measuring the unexplained wage gap and the type of institution or field being examined. We found that there has been a notable reduction in the overall unexplained wage gap between men and women, and that there is no longer any evidence of a statistically significant pay differential between men and women in doctoral-level or liberal arts institutions. The results also show that significant pay differentials still persist in some segments of academe, and that overall women with comparable qualifications to men have lower salaries.Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the annual meetings of the Association for Institutional Research, Tampa, FL, May 2003, and the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Portland, OR, November 2003.     

我国“剩女”成因之思考

“剩女”这一群体的出现是社会因素与个人因素相互作用的结果。“剩女”的流行既彰显了女性个性,也体现了女性在社会中所受到的歧视和挤压。分析“剩女”产生的原因,试图发现该现象的深层内涵。     

认知隐喻视野下的英汉语言性别歧视初探

语言性别歧视问题在语言学界得到越来越多的关注,传统研究往往集中在社会语言学框架内,而随着认知科学的发展,其相关理论也被应用到了语言性别歧视研究中。认知隐喻在本质上是人类思维和认知的一种方式,笔者将从认知隐喻的视角来探讨英汉语言中广泛存在的语言性别歧视现象,分别列举了三个典型的隐喻域并从象似性和文化范式视角对其进行解读,试图挖掘出语言性别歧视的认知理据。     

高职院校毕业生就业中的性别歧视问题分析

目前高校毕业生就业中的性别歧视问题日益严重。在对我国高职院校毕业生就业中性别歧视的现状及其不良后果进行分析的基础上,从劳动力市场、企业、社会保障制度、社会偏见等方面对高职院校毕业生就业中的性别歧视产生的原因进行了深入分析,从而有针对性地给出对策建议,希望为高职院校女生就业问题的解决提供参考。