The CLIA-model: A framework for designing powerful learning environments for thinking and problem solving

A major challenge for education and educational research is to build on our present understanding of learning for designing environments for education that are conducive to fostering in students self-regulatory and cooperative learning skills, transferable knowledge, and a disposition toward competent thinking and problem solving. Taking into account inquiry-based knowledge on learning and recent instructional research, this article presents the CLIA-model (Competence, Learning, Intervention, Assessment) as a framework for the design of learning environments aimed to be powerful in eliciting in students learning processes that facilitate the acquisition of productive knowledge and competent learning and thinking skills. Next, two intervention studies are described that embody major components of this framework, one focussing on mathematical problem solving in primary school, and a second one relating to self-regulatory skills in university freshmen. Both studies were carried out in parallel with the development of the framework, and were instrumental in identifying and specifying the different components of the model. They yielded both promising initial support for the model by showing that CLIA-based learning environments are indeed powerful in facilitating in students the acquisition of high-literacy learning results, especially the acquisition and transfer of self-regulation skills for learning and problem solving.     

基于问题解决的中国数学教育研究七十年:价值嬗变与研究展望

在过去的70年里,问题解决一直是我国数学教育领域的研究热点,其成果不仅影响着学生高层次思维的发展,还促进了积极的学习态度。基于问题解决的数学教育研究历程可分为三个阶段:初兴阶段、发展阶段和深化阶段。问题解决在不同阶段的名称反映了不同时期的价值追求。认知结构研究的抽象化、过程模型研究的多元化、策略研究的高度概括以及元认知研究的外显是数学问题解决研究的趋势。展望未来,关注同一情境中的不同结构、同一结构在不同情境间的迁移,为知识、技能向问题解决能力的转化匹配学习条件,加强数学问题解决的表现性评价研究是今后的研究方向。     

Decentering: A construct to analyze and explain teacher actions as they relate to student thinking

Mathematics educators and writers of mathematics education policy documents continue to emphasize the importance of teachers focusing on and using student thinking to inform their instructional decisions and interactions with students. In this paper, we characterize the interactions between a teacher and student(s) that exhibit this focus. Specifically, we extend previous work in this area by utilizing Piaget’s construct of decentering (The language and thought of the child. Meridian Books, Cleveland, 1955) to explain teachers’ actions relative to both their thinking and their students’ thinking. In characterizing decentering with respect to a teacher’s focus on student thinking, we use two illustrations that highlight the importance of decentering in making in-the-moment decisions that are based on student thinking. We also discuss the influence of teacher decentering actions on the quality of student–teacher interactions and their influence on student learning. We close by discussing various implications of decentering, including how decentering is related to other research constructs including teachers’ development and enactment of mathematical knowledge for teaching.     

Teachers' scaffolding behaviours during cooperative learning

This paper outlines the types of verbal interactions teachers engage in to challenge children's thinking and problem‐solving during cooperative learning. The paper also provides examples of how children model many of the verbal interactions they have seen demonstrated in their discourse with each other. It appears that when teachers are explicit in the types of thinking they want children to engage in, it encourages children to be more focused and explicit in the types of help they provide. Understanding the key role that teachers play in promoting thinking and problem‐solving in their students is particularly important given that it is the quality of talk that children generate that is a significant predictor of their learning.     

Three dimensions of reflective thinking in solving design problems: a conceptual model

Design tasks are omnipresent in our everyday lives. Previous research shows that reflective thinking is one of the critical factors in solving design problems. Related research has attempted to capture designers’ reflective thinking process. Yet a close inspection of designers’ reflective thinking taking place during their design process demands further effort. To understand designer’s reflective practice and to find better ways to promote novices’ reflective thinking in solving real-world design problems, a comprehensive model was developed. This model identified three dimensions to guide the understanding of designers’ reflective thinking during a design process: (1) the timing of reflection, indicating the points in the process where reflective thinking occurs, (2) the objects of reflection, showing the different types of objects that designers may reflect upon, and (3) the levels of reflection, referring to the different levels of designers’ reflection. This model provides for meaningful aspects of reflective thinking to be situated in a design process, which can guide educators and instructional designers in developing appropriate learning environments for facilitating novice and practicing designers’ reflective thinking. Moreover, the model can serve as a stepping stone for further research.     

On the Concrete Nature of Human Thinking: content and context in analogical transfer

Although the development of abstract knowledge and critical thinking skills has often been extolled as an ideal and as the goal of education (Nisbett et al., 1987), much research in problem solving and other cognitive endeavours points to the role that concrete information and examples play in thinking (Medin & Ross, 1989; Reeves & Weisberg, in press). We discuss the concrete vs abstract knowledge debate in terms of the use of analogies in problem solving and conclude that exemplar‐specific details of problems and the context in which problems are learned guide the transfer of a solution principle from one base problem to a target. The content of problems—what they are about—is often more important than the more abstract, schematic solution principle in influencing retrieval of base analogues (Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Keane, 1987; Ross, 1987) and mapping of the solution principle from base to target (Gentner & Toupin, 1986; Ross, 1987, 1989; Fong & Nisbett, 1991). It is suggested that learning abstract solution principles in a domain (e.g. algebra, physics) benefits greatly when instruction is accompanied by examples illustrating those principles (Cheng et al., 1986; Fong et al., 1986) and that analogical transfer itself serves as a useful means to greater comprehension of a domain (Ross & Kennedy, 1990).     

论教育研究中的类比思维

类比是人们在认识新事物、解决新问题的过程中重要的思维工具,作为一种教育研究传统中的普遍存在的思维形式,它发挥着重要的价值。它在教育的论证与研究范式的选择中普遍存在,并表征为教育隐喻。在教育研究主体不断下移的今天,类比思维将在教育研究中折射出无穷的魅力。     

自然科学的研究发展与哲学思维的产生形影相随

科学的发展表明,哲学是对社会科学与自然科学的总结,是开展对两类科学研究的钥匙。其一,通过对哲学与自然科学产生与发展的关联性,来探究二者之间的相互关系。其二,揭示现代哲学思维的五个核心内涵及特点,并从深层次领悟哲学对国家理政和经济发展决策的主心骨轻重导向的重要作用。其三,论述了善于观察、懂得比较、敢于质疑、富于想象是解开科学秘密的“万能钥匙”,从而达到通过实证论证,讲述现代大学生如何运用哲学思维去发现、思考、解决问题的理念,最终使我们能科学地将哲学的思维方法应用于对专业的学习和研究,从而为民族的伟大复兴挑起时代的重担。     

Science and Technology Education in the STES Context in Primary Schools: What Should It Take?

Striving for sustainability requires a paradigm shift in conceptualization, thinking, research and education, particularly concerning the science-technology-environment-society (STES) interfaces. Consequently, ‘STES literacy’ requires the development of students’ question asking, critical, evaluative system thinking, decision making and problem solving capabilities, in this context, via innovative implementable higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS)-promoting teaching, assessment and learning strategies. The corresponding paradigms shift in science and technology education, such as from algorithmic teaching to HOCS-promoting learning is unavoidable, since it reflects the social pressure, worldwide, towards more accountable socially- and environmentally-responsible sustainable development. Since most of the STES- and, recently STEM (science-technology-engineering-mathematics)-related research in science education has been focused on secondary and tertiary education, it is vital to demonstrate the relevance of this multifaceted research to the science and technology teaching in primary schools. Our longitudinal STES education-related research and curriculum development point to the very little contribution, if any, of the traditional science teaching to “know”, to the development of students’ HOCS capabilities. On the other hand, there appears to be a ‘general agreement’, that the contemporary dominant lower-order cognitive skills (LOCS) teaching and assessment strategies applied in science and technology education are, in fact, restraining the natural curiosity and creativity of primary school (and younger?) pupils/children. Since creative thinking as well as evaluative system thinking, decision making, problem solving and … transfer constitute an integral part of the HOCS conceptual framework, the appropriateness of “HOCS promoting” teaching, and the relevance of science and technology, to elementary education in the STES context, is apparent. Therefore, our overriding guiding purpose was to provide any evidence-based research to the vital LOCS-to-HOCS paradigm shift in STES education. The findings of, and conclusions derived from our longitudinal research on HOCS development within STES-oriented and traditional education, suggest that both—science and technology education (STE) and STES education—are relevant to primary school education. Based on this, what it should take to insure success in this context, is thoroughly discussed.     

医学影像专业硕士研究生规培案例教学培养的体会

医学影像学专业学位硕士研究生的培养要求学生同时具备坚实的临床诊断技能和一定的科研水平,以案例教学法为主的多种教学方式相结合的培养方式,调动了学生的主观能动性,有助于培养其自学能力、独立思考、独立解决问题及创新能力,同时有助于提高其科研能力,提高了专业硕士研究生培养质量。     

Using educational software to support collective thinking and test hypotheses in the computer science curriculum

This study analyses the discourse among the teacher and the students, members of three (3) small groups, who learn in the environment of a stand-alone computer. Two educational environments are examined: the first one, a “virtual laboratory” (Virtual scale-DELYS) and the second one, a computer modeling environment (ModelsCreator). The ‘Virtual Scale’ environment provides users with curriculum focused feedback and in that sense it can be categorized as directive. The ModelsCreator environment provides users merely with a representation of their own conception of curriculum concepts, so it can be categorized as an open-ended environment. The goal of this research is to exemplify the way the two educational software environments support (a) the development of collective thinking in peer— and teacher-led discussion and (b) students’ autonomy. The software tools of the “Virtual scale” along with the resources provided for the problem solving created an educational framework of hypothesis testing. This framework did not limit the students’ contributions by directing them to give short answers. Moreover, it supported the students’ initiatives by providing tools, representations and procedures that offered educationally meaningful feedback. Based on the above results, we discuss a new educationally important structure of software mediation and describe the way the two software activities resourced collective thinking and students’ initiatives. Finally, for each type of software environment, we propose certain hypotheses for future research regarding the support of collaborative problem solving.     

Voices in Education: What Other Countries and Disciplines Have to Offer

Abstract

Emphasizing critical thinking in teacher education could potentially increase society's effectiveness in addressing national and international problems. This linkage between teacher education and societal problem solving is predicated on three major possibilities: (a) Increased emphasis on critical thinking in teacher education will increase the emphasis on critical thinking in K‐12 education, (b) increased emphasis on critical thinking in K‐12 will lead to increased use of critical thinking within society, and (c) increased use of critical thinking among society's leaders and citizens will produce better problem solving at a societal level. The proposed linkage between teacher education and societal problem solving is anchored in three aspects of critical thinking: disposition toward critical thinking, cognitive skill in critical thinking, and information bases for critical thinking.     

论直觉思维与逻辑思维的相互关系

在人们解决问题的思维活动中，直觉思维和逻辑思维都发挥着作用，并且相互联系、相辅相成。如果把直觉思维和逻辑思维割裂开来或对立起来，对于解决问题、科学研究是不利的。通过对人们在解决问题的思维活动和科学研究活动中常见的三种解决问题的模式的分析，我们可以看到直觉思维和逻辑思维所起的作用以及它们之间的相互联系。     

Facilitating Students’ Problem Solving in a Technological Context: Prospective Teachers’ Learning Trajectory

In the past decade, there has been an increased emphasis on the preparation of teachers who can effectively engage students in meaningful mathematics with technology tools. This study presents a closer look at how three prospective teachers interpreted and developed in their role of facilitating students’ mathematical problem solving with a technology tool. A cycle of planning–experience–reflection was repeated twice during an undergraduate course to allow the prospective teachers to change their strategies when working with two different groups of students. Case study methods were used to identify and analyze critical events that occurred throughout the different phases of the study and how these events may have influenced the prospective teachers’ work with students. Looking across the cases, several themes emerged. The prospective teachers (1) used their problem solving approaches to influence their pedagogical decisions; (2) desired to ask questions that would guide students in their solution strategies; (3) recognized their own struggle in facilitating students’ problem solving and focused on improving their interactions with students; (4) assumed the role of an explainer for some portion of their work with students; (5) used technological representations to promote students’ mathematical thinking or focus their attention; and (6) used the technology tools in ways consistent with the nature of their interactions and perceived role with students. The implications inform the development of an expanded learning trajectory for what we might expect as prospective teachers develop an understanding of how to teach mathematics in technology-rich environments.     

Teacher interactions and effects on group triple problem solving space

ABSTRACT

Research shows that collaborative work promotes student learning and improves social skills, but teachers are still exploring how to best support problem-solving in a small group context, particularly in the science classroom. This study builds on prior research to characterise teacher interactions with small groups in secondary science and analyses how those interactions affect a collectively constructed space – the triple problem solving space (TPSS) – in which group members collectively understand a task (content/cognitive dimension), manage social interactions (social/relational dimension), and co-construct the emotional life of the group (affective dimension). Results of two biology teachers’ interactions with students in small groups working on inquiry and engineering design activities show that most interactions were administrative and had little influence on the group’s TPSS. Teacher interactions that engaged students in monitoring their problem-solving process, however, did have the capacity to increase cognitive work of the group, which subsequently impacted the students’ group affect and social dimension. These findings suggest that interactions focused on cognitive processes have the potential to support all aspects of a group’s TPSS. Though this research is only a first step in understanding the impact of teacher interactions on small group work, implications for teaching practices are discussed.     

Spatial thinking in science,technology, engineering,and mathematics: Elementary teachers' beliefs,perceptions, and self-efficacy

Fostering students' spatial thinking skills holds great promise for improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. Recent efforts have focused on the development of classroom interventions to build students' spatial skills, yet these interventions will be implemented by teachers, and their beliefs and perceptions about spatial thinking influence the effectiveness of such interventions. However, our understanding of elementary school teachers' beliefs and perceptions around spatial thinking and STEM is in its infancy. Thus, we created novel measures to survey elementary teachers' anxiety in solving spatial problems, beliefs in the importance of spatial thinking skills for students' academic success, and self-efficacy in cultivating students' spatial skills during science instruction. All measures exhibited high internal consistency and showed that elementary teachers experience low anxiety when solving spatial problems and feel strongly that their skills can improve with practice. Teachers were able to identify educational problems that rely on spatial problem-solving and believed that spatial skills are more important for older compared to younger students. Despite reporting high efficacy in their general teaching and science teaching, teachers reported significantly lower efficacy in their capacities to cultivate students' spatial skills during science instruction. Results were fairly consistent across teacher characteristics (e.g., years of experience and teaching role as generalist or specialist) with the exception that only years of teaching science was related to teachers' efficacy in cultivating students' spatial thinking skills during science instruction. Results are discussed within the broader context of teacher beliefs, self-efficacy, and implications for professional development research.     

Schema abstraction with productive failure and analogical comparison: Learning designs for far across domain transfer

Although there has been considerable research into knowledge transfer for over a century, there remains a need for specific, validated techniques for teaching for transfer. This article reports on classroom-based research in which students learned about complex systems and climate change with agent-based computer models using two different instructional approaches based on productive failure (PF). In both PF approaches, students initially explored a problem space on their own and then received teacher-led instruction. One treatment group used climate computer models whereas the other group engaged in analogical comparisons between the same climate computer models and complexity computer models in different domains. The study found both groups demonstrated significant learning gains by posttest on assessments of declarative and explanatory knowledge and on within domain near transfer. However, students in the two models treatment group performed at a significantly higher level on an across domain far transfer problem solving task. Theoretical and practical implications are considered.     

Developing Design through a Creative Problem‐Solving Process: A Group Community Art Project

For the past few years, creativity has gradually become an important element in the national cultivation of talent in Taiwan. Although traditionally art education is closely linked with creativity, the academic research on general art education is very insufficient. Therefore, the goal of this research is to investigate how creativity could be cultivated in curriculum planning for general art education at technology universities as well as what students’ learning process was when they participated in a course's creative activity. The research applied the theory and steps of creative problem‐solving (CPS) on a general art course to design a group practical activity combining with the local community. This involved converting the steps of creative problem‐solving into different stages of group design activities with the goal of constructing a design process equivalent to the process of problem‐solving. The main research results revealed that students could experience the problem‐solving process through group design activities and develop their divergent and convergent thinking at the same time. Moreover, the cooperative learning model is the most appropriate teaching strategy for students from non‐art‐related departments when cultivating their creativity.     

An online support system to scaffold real-world problem solving

The article presents a reusable online support system, in which an open-ended learning environment is created to scaffold complex, real-world problem solving activities. The major learning components of the system are specifically described, and the internal interactions between different components within the system and the external interactions among the system, learners (who also interact with one another among themselves), instructors, and administrators are demonstrated. The learning theories and the assumptions underpinning the system design framework are discussed in terms of each of the system components: case library with real-world cases, question prompts, peer review, expert modelling, and self-reflection mechanisms. In conclusion, initial findings about the support system are shared, and issues regarding reusability, adaptivity, and generativity of the system are addressed focusing on developing novice learners' problem solving skills in various domains and contexts. The article proposes a cognitive model for contextualizing learning scenarios to support real-world problem solving, which has implications for designing e-learning.