Computerised screening for dyslexia in adults

Identifying dyslexia in adulthood presents particular challenges because of complicating factors such as acquisition of compensatory strategies, differing degrees of intervention and the problem of distinguishing dyslexic adults from those whose literacy difficulties have non‐cognitive causes. One of the implications is that conventional literacy measures, per se, do not provide a satisfactory basis for screening for dyslexia in adulthood as some dyslexic adults have above‐average literacy skills and some non‐dyslexic adults have very poor literacy skills. This study examined an alternative approach to dyslexia screening, using three tests that depend heavily on phonological processing, lexical access and working memory, but which are not conventional measures of literacy. Using these tests, which are computer delivered, 70 dyslexic adults from three different types of educational institution were compared with 69 non‐dyslexic adults from the same institutions. The results showed that the dyslexic and non‐dyslexic groups were significantly different on all three computer‐based tests, with an average effect size of 1.55. Adaptive versions of these tests were then created to reduce overall administration time for the suite to about 15 minutes. Analysis showed that the combined scaled scores from the adaptive versions of the three tests significantly discriminated the dyslexic from the non‐dyslexic group with an increased effect size of 2.07 and with a sensitivity rate of 90.6% and a specificity rate of 90.0%. It was concluded that this approach is a valid and useful method of identifying dyslexia in adulthood, which, given the ease of administration to large numbers of adults, has noted advantages for education and employment.     

Reading in French-speaking adults with dyslexia

This study investigated the reading and reading-related skills of 15 French-speaking adults with dyslexia, whose performance was compared with that of chronological-age controls (CA) and reading-level controls (RL). Experiment 1 assessed the efficiency of their phonological reading-related skills (phonemic awareness, phonological short-term memory, and rapid automatic naming (RAN)) and experiment 2 assessed the efficiency of their lexical and sublexical (or phonological) reading procedures (reading aloud of pseudowords and irregular words of different lengths). Experiment 1 revealed that adults with dyslexia exhibited lower phonological reading-related skills than CAs only, and were better than RL controls on the RAN. In experiment 2, as compared with RL controls, only a deficit in the sublexical reading procedure was observed. The results of the second experiment replicated observations from English-language studies but not those of the first experiment. Several hypotheses are discussed to account for these results, including one related to the transparency of orthographic systems.     

Exploring support for dyslexic adults in the English workforce: lessons learnt from the story of an adult dyslexia group

Dyslexia support is likely to be in place for students within educational establishments in England. However, there are a significant number of adults with dyslexia in the English workplace who are no longer involved in education and for whom ongoing support is necessary to enable them to reach their potential in a world of increasing literacy demands. Legislation has led to significant moves towards inclusion in the English workplace, but there has been a lack of public recognition of the concerns and needs articulated by adults with this invisible disability. The formation of local voluntary groups provides one model of support for adults with dyslexia. This article examines the setting up of one such group and highlights issues involved in this process. The nature of the group structure and the support offered is discussed, including its impact on the individuals concerned. Finally, the author makes recommendations for stakeholders in the inclusion of adults with dyslexia.     

Advances in early years screening for dyslexia in the United Kingdom

In this article, we describe two United Kingdom (UK) screening tests for dyslexia: the Dyslexia Early Screening Test (DEST) and the Cognitive Profiling System (CoPS 1), both normed and designed to be administered by teachers to children four years and older. We first outline the political context in the UK, which for the first time, makes the use of such tests viable. We then outline the research programs behind and the components of each test; reliability and validity are also discussed. Information is presented on the tests in use. We conclude that tests such as these have the potential to identify children as at risk before they fail, halting the cycle of emotional and motivational problems traditionally associated with dyslexia. Both tests are appropriate for use in the United States, and initial reactions from the education sector have been favorable.     

Visual stress in adults with and without dyslexia

The relationship between dyslexia and visual stress (sometimes known as Meares‐Irlen syndrome) is uncertain. While some theorists have hypothesised an aetiological link between the two conditions, mediated by the magnocellular visual system, at the present time the predominant theories of dyslexia and visual stress see them as distinct, unrelated conditions, a view that has received some support from studies with children. Studies of visual stress in adults are rare, yet recent reports of a high incidence of this phenomenon amongst university students with diagnosed dyslexia call for further investigation of the issue. This study sought to clarify the relationship between visual stress and dyslexia by comparing the reading performance of dyslexic and non‐dyslexic adults with, and without, colour. Degree of susceptibility to visual stress was determined by means of a symptom rating scale. Optimal colour was determined using an Intuitive Colorimeter, which was also employed to assess reading speed under the two experimental conditions. Only the dyslexic students with high visual stress showed significant gains in reading speed when using optimal colour. The use of response to treatment (rather than symptomatology) as a diagnostic criterion for visual stress is questioned, especially when applied to adults, as this may give misleading findings. On the basis of reported symptomatology, students who experience high levels of visual stress are more likely to show improvements in reading rate with optimal colour if they also have dyslexia than if they do not have dyslexia. Although not establishing an aetiological link, these findings imply an interaction between the two conditions with major implications for theory, diagnosis and treatment.     

Sentence comprehension in young adults with developmental dyslexia

This study investigated the effects of syntactic complexity on written sentence comprehension in compensated adults with dyslexia. Because working memory (WM) plays a key role in processing complex sentences, and individuals with dyslexia often demonstrate persistent deficits in WM, we hypothesized that individuals with dyslexia would perform more poorly on tasks designed to assess the comprehension of syntactic structures that are especially taxing on WM (e.g., passives, sentences with relative clauses). Compared to their nondyslexic peers, individuals with dyslexia were significantly less accurate and marginally slower on passive sentences. For sentences containing relative clauses, the dyslexic group was also less accurate but did not differ in response times. Covarying WM and word reading in both analyses eliminated group differences showing that syntactic deficits in adults with dyslexia are constrained by both WM and word-reading ability. These findings support previous research showing that syntactic processing deficits are characteristic of dyslexia, even among high-achieving students.     

The Swedish WAIS-R factor structure and cognitive profiles for adults with dyslexia

Factor analysis of the Swedish version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) on a group of 88 adult individuals with dyslexia showed a three-factor structure with a verbal comprehension (VC) factor, a perceptual organization (PO) factor, and a freedom from distractibility (FD) factor. The results of this factor analysis support earlier findings from factor analyses of adults in the original U.S. normative sample and in different clinical groups. The profile of scores for the sample of individuals with dyslexia showed the expected pattern, with PO highest and FD lowest. The predicted pattern was also observed using Bannatyne's recategorization of WAIS-R subtests. As has been true for other typical and exceptional samples, women scored significantly higher than men on the Digit Symbol subtest. Related to this gender difference, Digit Symbol scores proved to be sensitive to problems associated with dyslexia only for men with dyslexia. Also, education level was shown to be related to verbal (V)-performance (P) IQ discrepancy, with larger P > V differences observed for participants with fewer years of formal schooling. Regardless of these gender and education differences, the characteristic factor score and Bannatyne patterns were identified for both men and women and for three different subsamples categorized by educational level.     

The issues involved in developing a spelling program for adults with dyslexia

The focus of this paper will be the issues involved in developing a spelling program for an adult with dyslexia. Thus a review of research and identification of the implications of such research will be undertaken. It is appropriate to address spelling because it is poor spelling rather than poor reading which remains a weakness for the dyslexic adult (Singleton, 1991). Spelling is also perceived as being more difficult (Miles 1993). Yet another value in teaching specific spelling skills to dyslexic learners is that some research suggests that spelling training given in conjunction with phonological awareness training facilitates reading development at a faster rate (Ehri, 1989). No attempt will be made to develop specific teaching strategies orto evaluate specific methods for the teaching of dyslexic learners, although reference may be made to either or both of these aspects.     

A developmental framework for developmental dyslexia

There are surprisingly few theories of the normal development of literacy that take into account the different cognitive processes underlying reading and spelling skills. The present framework suggests three phases, corresponding to the acquisition of logographic, alphabetic, and, finally, orthographic skills. At each phase, a new skill is introduced with either reading (input processes) or writing (output processes) acting as pacemaker. This stepwise progress is driven by a certain opposition between reading and writing processes. At any of the critical points where a new step has to be taken, breakdown can occur. This will result in different types of literacy disorder. However, the disorder will not only be characterized by the deficiency in a particular skill, but also by compensatory skills which will inevitably develop. Only by using models of this type will we be able to achieve a properly developmental perspective for developmental dyslexia.     

Bias in dyslexia screening in a Dutch multicultural population

We set out to address the adequacy of dyslexia screening in Dutch and non-western immigrant children, using the Dutch Dyslexia Screening Test (DST-NL) and outcomes of the Dutch dyslexia protocol, both of which are susceptible to cultural bias. Using the protocol as standard, we conducted an ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristics) analysis in Dutch and immigrant third, fifth, and seventh graders, combining a cross-sectional and longitudinal design. Sensitivity and specificity increased with grade, but were non-significant for various subtests in the lowest grade, suggesting considerable non-convergence between the two measures. Effective subtests in all grades, presumably not strongly influenced by Cultural Background or Word Lexicon, were One-Minute Reading, Non-Word Reading, and Nonsense Passage Reading. In a multilevel analysis, cultural background, dyslexia diagnosis, parental education, and grade of first assessment were predictors of subtest performance. In a second analysis, Word Lexicon was added as a proxy of knowledge of the Dutch language and culture. After controlling for Word Lexicon, cultural background became significant for most subtests, suggesting the presence of cultural bias. Subtests assessing technical literacy, such as One-Minute-Reading, Non-Word-Reading, One-Minute-Writing, or Two-Minutes-Spelling, showed more convergence between the two assessments. Less-effective subtests were Naming Pictures, Backward Digit Span, and Verbal and Semantic Fluency. It is concluded that the DST-NL and the standard protocol do not show complete convergence, notably in the lower grades in the multilingual pupil group of our cohort, mainly because dyslexia and literacy difficulties are hard to disentangle.     

A clinical model for treatment of dyslexia

Children with moderate learning disabilities often fail to qualify for special education programs in public schools, but are ill-suited for placement in private schools concerned with the severely disabled. Parents of such children may place their hopes in the promises of private teachers or clinics. Yet the quality of services provided in the private sector varies widely. This paper describes a model program against which parents and private service providers can measure the strengths and weaknesses of the programs they are concerned with. The model places special emphasis on thorough evaluation, frequent reevaluation, staff accountability, program flexibility, and recognition of the parents’ role in the child’s education.     

Auditory and motor rhythm awareness in adults with dyslexia

Children with developmental dyslexia appear to be insensitive to basic auditory cues to speech rhythm and stress. For example, they experience difficulties in processing duration and amplitude envelope onset cues. Here we explored the sensitivity of adults with developmental dyslexia to the same cues. In addition, relations with expressive and receptive rhythm tasks, such as tempi recognition and manual tapping to a metronome, were explored. Our goal was to investigate whether the auditory deficits seen in dyslexia are specific to cues to speech rhythm and stress, or are part of a wider rhythmic awareness problem. A group of 19 undergraduate students with dyslexia were compared with 20 age‐ and ability‐matched controls. The findings confirmed a relationship between auditory rhythm sensitivity and literacy in adults, as well as showing an association with metronome inter‐tap‐interval variability.     

Spelling errors in adults with a form of familial dyslexia

We compared the spelling errors on the WRAT II made by adults (N = 24) with an apparent autosomal dominant form of dyslexia to those made by their normal adult relatives (N = 17) and by spelling-age matched normal controls (N = 17) using a computerized error evaluation program (SEEP). The normal adult relatives were significantly better than the dyslexics in both reading and spelling, but did not differ in age, education, or IQ. SEEP evaluated each error independently for both phonological and orthographic accuracy at 2 levels of complexity. Each level of complexity was analyzed separately using a 3 X 2 (group X dimension) analysis of variance. The main finding of interest was a significant group X dimension interaction effect at the complex level, which indicated that the dyslexics had a qualitatively different profile across the 2 dimensions than either normal group who had parallel profiles. The dyslexics performed like the younger normal group on the complex phonological dimension but like the adult normal group on the complex orthographic dimension. These results indicate a dissociation in this form of familial dyslexia between these 2 dimensions of spelling development, and suggest that these dyslexics may fit the subtype of dysphonetic or phonological dyslexia. The implications of these results for the underlying cognitive deficit in this form of dyslexia are discussed.     

A definition of dyslexia

This paper elaborates on the components of a working definition of developmental dyslexia. It follows the general format of a paper by Lyon published in Annals of Dyslexia in 1995, which elaborated on a working definition proposed in 1994 (Lyon, 1995). The current definition agreed on by the work group updates and expands on the working definition from 1994.     

Reading comprehension skills of young adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia

This study explores the contribution of cognitive processes to comprehension skills in adults who suffered from childhood developmental dyslexia (CD). The performance of adults with CD (ages 17 to 23), chronological age-matched (CA) adults, and reading level-matched (RL) children was compared on measures of phonological processing, naming speed, working memory (WM), general knowledge, vocabulary, and comprehension. The results showed that adults with CD scored lower on measures of phonological processing, naming speed, WM, general knowledge, and vocabulary when compared to CA readers but were comparable to RL children on the majority of process measures. Phonological processing, naming speed, vocabulary, general knowledge, and listening comprehension contributed independent variance to reading comprehension accuracy, whereas WM, intelligence, phonological processing, and listening comprehension contributed independent variance to comprehension fluency. Adults with CD scored lower than CA adults and higher than RL children on measures of lexical processing, WM, and listening comprehension when word recognition and intelligence were partialed from the analysis. In summary, constraints in phonological processing and naming speed mediate only some of the influence of high-order processes on reading comprehension. Furthermore, adults with CD experience difficulties in WM, listening comprehension, and vocabulary independently of their word recognition problems and intellectual ability.     

The Hong Kong Behaviour Checklist for Primary Students: Developing a brief dyslexia screening measure

The authors report on the development of a brief dyslexia screening measure based on revising the 65-item Hong Kong Behaviour Checklist of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing. Teachers’ ratings of 1063 primary students aged 6–14 years on the behaviour checklist provided data for its psychometric evaluation using traditional measurement and Rasch measurement model analyses. Rasch scaling suggested that the revised 36-item checklist could be regarded as a unidimensional scale that assesses global dyslexic dysfunction, and receiver operating characteristics analysis suggested that a score of 18 could be an optimal cut-off score when it is used as a dyslexia screening measure. The validity of this revised checklist was supported by its substantial and significant correlations with external measures of literacy and cognitive skills. Implications of the findings for the use of adaptive testing to provide an effective procedure for screening are discussed.     

Enhancing self-efficacy in minority youth: A group technique

This article presents a two-phase group process that can be utilized to develop self-efficacy in minority youth. The process involves helping minority students to develop realistic educational and precareer goals through group supported analysis of individual strengths, weaknesses, resources, and roadblocks to success. Modeling, role playing, and outside activities are the major components of the group process.