The influence of visual cognitive style when learning from instructional animations and static pictures

In a 2 × 2 design, we examined the role of visual cognitive style in two multimedia-based learning environments (text plus static pictures/animations). A statistically significant interaction was obtained for deeper comprehension: Highly developed visualizers (HDV) who learned with static pictures performed better than HDV who learned with animations, and less developed visualizers (LDV) performed the same with static pictures or animations.For factual knowledge, there was a main effect in favor of HDV. Subsequent tests revealed that HDV outperformed LDV only when learning from static pictures, but not when studying animations. There were no overall differences between animations and static pictures. The assumption is made that HDV benefit from their cognitive style when they have to construct a mental animation from static pictures.Concluding, we did not find any rationale for converting static pictures to animations — HDV learned better with static pictures, while for LDV, it made no difference.     

Learning from multimedia presentations: Facilitation function of animations and spatial abilities

Animations may facilitate learning by providing external support for visual–spatial mental processing. Facilitation is challenged by findings that demonstrate involvement of spatial abilities in learning from animations, because this involvement indicates active internal visual–spatial processing. In the present study, learners attended to a system-paced multimedia presentation in which a verbal–auditory explanation was concurrently synchronized either with animation, with static core pictures, or with enriched static pictures that showed additional intermediate steps and arrows indicating motion. Results demonstrated better learning success with animations and with enriched static pictures than with static pictures. Spatial abilities were not substantively related to learning success with animations or with static pictures, but they played a crucial role for learning success with enriched static pictures. It is concluded that active visual–spatial processing was recruited with enriched static pictures. With animations, learning was truly facilitated by external support for visual–spatial mental processing.     

Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning

New technologies allow the display of text, static visuals, and animations. Although animations are inherently attractive, they are not always beneficial for learning. Problems may arise especially when animations modify the learner's cognitive load in an unintended way. In two learning experiments with 40 and 26 university students, the effects of animated pictures on knowledge acquisition were investigated. Some pictures displayed visual simulations of changes over time, whereas other pictures could be manipulated by learners to represent different states in time. Results showed that manipulation pictures had an enabling function for individuals with high learning prerequisites, whereas simulation pictures had a facilitating function for individuals with low learning prerequisites. However, the facilitating function was not beneficial for learning, because learners were prevented from performing relevant cognitive processes on their own. A careful analysis of the interrelation between different kinds of cognitive load and the process of learning is therefore required.     

Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis

A meta-analysis of 26 primary studies, yielding 76 pair-wise comparisons of dynamic and static visualizations, reveals a medium-sized overall advantage of instructional animations over static pictures. The mean weighted effect size on learning outcome is d = 0.37 (95% CI 0.25–0.49). Moderator analyses indicate even more substantial effect sizes when the animation is representational rather than decorational (d = 0.40, 95% CI 0.26–0.53), when the animation is highly realistic, e.g., video-based (d = 0.76, 95% CI 0.39–1.13), and/or when procedural-motor knowledge is to be acquired (d = 1.06, 95% CI 0.72–1.40). The results are in line with contemporary theories of cognitive load and multimedia learning, and they have practical implications for instructional design.     

Animation and learning: selective processing of information in dynamic graphics

Animation can provide learners with explicit dynamic information that is either implicit or unavailable in static graphics. However, the inclusion of temporal change in a visual display introduces additional and qualitatively different information processing demands. For learners to be successful in building high-quality mental models from animated instruction, they must extract thematically relevant information from the animation and incorporate it into their knowledge structures. Animation group subjects used a dynamic depiction of weather map changes to help them predict the future pattern of meteorological markings on a given map and then made a further prediction for a different map without the aid of the animation. Predictions from these subjects were superior in some respects to those produced by control subjects but this superiority tended to be limited to aspects that had high perceptual salience in the animation. The findings indicate selective processing of the animation that involved perceptually driven dynamic effects analogous to the field–ground effects associated with the visuospatial characteristics of static graphics, and raise questions about the widely assumed intrinsic superiority of animations over static graphics as resources for learning.     

Learning verbs more effectively through meaning congruent action animations

The current study investigates the effectiveness of learning words while displaying meaning congruent animations. We explore whether learning words with animation is sensitive to properties known to influence action understanding. We apply an embodied cognition framework and predictions from a recent theory about language and action (Action-Based Language theory, Glenberg & Gallese, 2012). The current study aims to investigate whether dynamic animations add to word learning (Experiment 1) and what the linguistic relation between the dynamic animation and the word learning is (Experiment 2). Results indicate that meaning congruent animations improved verb learning compared to meaning incongruent animations when measured by a recognition task. When measured by an active recall task, congruent animations led to better learning than static pictures. In both measures, meaning congruent animations support word learning. Experiment 2 replicates and extends this and suggests that highlighting conceptual information related to the dynamic action (such as the goal) improves word learning further. The findings are in line with Action-Based Language theory, which suggests that children are able to make better simulations of an action during learning when supported by meaning congruent animations. Highlighting conceptual information additionally supports this learning process.     

Teacher facilitating of group learning in science with digital technology and insights into students’ agency in learning to learn

ABSTRACT

The study provides an insight into how teachers may facilitate students’ group learning in science with digital technology, which was examined when Norwegian lower secondary school students engaged in learning concepts of mitosis and meiosis. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of the teacher’s assistance draw on Galperin’s conceptualisation of learning.

Findings reveal patterns in the teacher’s guidance: the teacher fulfilled the orienting, executive and controlling functions while assisting students in identifying the key features of mitosis and meiosis and solving the compare and contrast task. The teacher relied on and interplayed with the available mediational resources: compare and contrast task, digital animations, and collaborating peers. However, it was the compare and contrast task that demonstrated an approach to study scientific concepts which may have contributed to the development of learners’ understanding about to engage in learning in science. By adopting such an approach, learning activity has the potential to not only help students to achieve learning outcomes but it acquires a functional significance, becoming a tool in the learning process aimed at the development of students’ as learners. The digital animations, in turn, demonstrated scientific processes that were otherwise invisible for students and triggered group discussions. The study, therefore, raises questions about the need for practitioners’ awareness of the type of support the technology and other resources provide to assist both conceptual learning and enhancing students’ agency in learning to learn.     

A cross-cultural study of learning behaviours in the classroom: from a thinking style perspective

Chinese students were often portrayed as passive learners in the classroom, whereas their American peers have been viewed as active learners. This study was designed to examine and explain the distinct learning behaviours in the classroom between these two student groups in relation to thinking style. Surveys of learning behaviours and thinking styles were administered to three samples, American students (n?=?129), Chinese students in China (n?=?134) and Chinese students in the USA (n?=?121). The results of the study revealed that American students reported higher activity level in the classroom and tended to be analytic in thinking style, while Chinese students, both in China and in the USA, reported lower activity level in the classroom, and were inclined to be holistic in thinking style. Furthermore, the thinking style variable was found to mediate the relationship between cultural group and learning behaviour, suggesting that thinking style might partially explain the distinct learning behaviours presented by American and Chinese students.     

Exploring How Different Features of Animations of Sodium Chloride Dissolution Affect Students’ Explanations

Animations of molecular structure and dynamics are often used to help students understand the abstract ideas of chemistry. This qualitative study investigated how the features of two different styles of molecular-level animation affected students’ explanations of how sodium chloride dissolves in water. In small group sessions 18 college-level general chemistry students dissolved table salt in water, after which they individually viewed two animations of salt dissolution. Before and after viewing each animation the participants provided pictorial, written, and oral explanations of the process at the macroscopic and molecular levels. The students then discussed the animations as a group. An analysis of the data showed that students incorporated some of the microscopic structural and functional features from the animations into their explanations. However, oral explanations revealed that in many cases, participants who drew or wrote correct explanations did not comprehend their meanings. Students’ drawings may have reflected only what they had seen, rather than a cohesive understanding. Students’ explanations given after viewing the animations improved, but some prior misconceptions were retained and in some cases, new misconceptions appeared. Students reported that they found the animations useful in learning; however, they sometimes missed essential features when they watched the animation alone.     

Prerequisite knowledge and time of testing in learning with animations and static pictures: Evidence for the expertise reversal effect

An animation can have an informational advantage over a static picture by depicting dynamic features. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the provision of prerequisite knowledge can help learners infer dynamic features from a static picture. It was assumed that this supposedly more active processing with a static picture would result in longer lasting knowledge representations. A 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects design with visualization format (static picture vs. animation), prerequisite knowledge (provided vs. not provided), and time of testing (immediate vs. one week later) was used (N = 260). The results of a transfer test showed that learners with low prerequisite knowledge benefited from the animation, but this was not the case for learners with high prerequisite knowledge. Time of testing had no influence. In line with the expertise reversal effect, prerequisite knowledge not only fostered learning with the static picture but also hindered learning with the animation.     

Perceived advantages of 3D lessons in constructive learning for South African student teachers encountering learning barriers

Research shows that three-dimensional (3D)-animated lessons can contribute to student teachers’ effective learning and comprehension, regardless of the learning barriers they experience. Student teachers majoring in the subject Life Sciences in General Subject Didactics viewed 3D images of the heart during lectures. The 3D images employed in the lessons enabled student teachers to interact and perform longitudinal and cross-sections of the 3D images in order to enhance their understanding of difficult concepts. In this study, quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed. Selected participants (n?=?26) were interviewed and requested to indicate the advantages of 3D lessons for effective learning. These advantages were grouped according to the universal design for learning model, and then listed in a questionnaire that was completed by all participants (n?=?88). The results indicated that 3D animations improved their understanding of concepts regardless of the learning barriers they encountered. They also agreed that their attention span improved, they were more interested in the topic, developed a deeper understanding of the content, were actively involved in the lesson and tended to ask more complex questions.     

Developing and evaluating a strategy for learning from animations

Based on current theories of multimedia learning, we propose a strategy for learning from animations. Two different experimental studies were conducted in order to evaluate the strategy. In the first study, 22 sixth graders learned from an animation without the strategy while 21 students were encouraged to make use of the proposed strategy during learning; use of the strategy was not monitored. The students who were encouraged to take advantage of the strategy learned significantly more than the students who were not asked to do so. In the second study, three groups of sixth graders were investigated. The first group consisted of 49 students who learned from an animation without the strategy. The second group consisted of 52 students who were encouraged to make use of the strategy during learning; but use of the strategy was not monitored. The third group consisted of 53 students who were also encouraged to make use of the strategy during learning and their use of the strategy was monitored. The results of the second study replicated the findings of the first study. Furthermore, learning was most successful when the students' use of the learning strategy was monitored.     

Individual and co-operative learning with interactive animated pictures

Computer-based multimedia learning environments make it possible to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow the dynamic behavior of complex subject matter to be displayed. Due to the large range of possibilities for exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem well suited for co-operative learning in which different learners analyse the presented subject matter from different perspectives. This paper first describes a theoretical framework for learning from texts and pictures together with an analysis of possible effects of animation and interactivity on knowledge acquisition. It then presents two empirical studies in which knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a superior encoding of detail information, but did not facilitate performance of mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in inferior encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of subjects’ co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load and that this load can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures may provide external support for mental simulations, they do not appear to be generally beneficial for learning, because they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.     

Facilitating spatial perspective taking through animation: Evidence from an aptitude–treatment-interaction

The present study examined the facilitating function of animations for spatial perspective taking. The task demanded to estimate directions to memorized objects in a spatial scene from an imagined position and orientation within the scene. Static pictures which required imagined reorientation of the self were compared to animations showing the reorientation externally. Individual differences in perspective taking ability were considered. Results showed a large effect in favor of animations for reaction times. An aptitude–treatment-interaction was found for accuracy: The relation between perspective taking ability and accuracy in direction estimation was moderated by type of presentation (static pictures vs. animation). Perspective taking ability played a much stronger role in direction estimation accuracy with static pictures than with animations. It is concluded that focused animations can facilitate perspective taking and thereby compensate for low spatial perspective taking ability.     

The moderating role of additional information when learning with animations compared to static pictures

Instructional Science - In research on learning with animations compared to static pictures usually very short and narrowly defined topics are chosen. However, in school contexts such topics are...     

Supporting coherence formation in learning from multiple representations

Multimedia learning environments combine multiple forms of representations like texts, static and animated pictures or graphs. Knowledge acquisition from multiple representations requires that the learner create referential connections between corresponding elements and corresponding structures in different representations. As this process is usually difficult, learners frequently fail to construct coherent mental representations and, thus, do not sufficiently understand the subject matter. This paper analyzes the effects of different kinds of instructional help on the process of coherence formation from multiple representations by learners with different prior knowledge. Three groups of university students with different domain-specific knowledge had to learn a complex subject matter from chemistry using six different forms of representation. In addition, a first group received directive help for coherence formation. A second group received non-directive help, and a third group received no instructional help. Results indicate that directive help is effective for recall performance because of its summarizing and repeating function. Furthermore, learners with different levels of prior knowledge show different reactions when help is given. For learners with insufficient prior knowledge help is not helpful or, in case of recall performance, even harmful. Learners with a medium level of prior knowledge can increase especially their comprehension performance when help is offered, whereas learners with too much prior knowledge seem not to be affected by help.     

Contextual animation in multimedia learning materials for pre-adolescents: The saga of null results continues

BackgroundEmotional design approaches tend to be instructionally effective in the case of higher education learners. However, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of emotional design for children is limited. Contextual animation is one way that emotional design can be realized. Contextual animation refers to the non-expository animation of context-providing representational pictures.AimThis study examines the effects of contextual animation on learning outcomes and situational interest in the case of pre-adolescents.SampleParticipants included 50 children 9–11 year of age recruited from all parts of the Czech Republic.MethodParticipants studied exponential growth and public opinion polls from two, 3-min-long, narrated videos; one included contextual animation and the other did not (counterbalanced within-subject design with randomization). Each child participated separately in one online session with a research administrator.ResultsAlthough animated videos triggered interest (d = 0.18, 0.36), null results were found both as regards learning outcomes and maintained situational interest.ConclusionsThis study adds to a small body of literature pointing at limited effects of emotional design approaches on pre-adolescents. Additional studies with young audiences and using other forms of emotional design would be a welcome addition to the literature.     

Do dynamic work instructions provide an advantage over static instructions in a small scale assembly task?

Recent studies exploring the effects of instructional animations on learning compared to static graphics have yielded mixed results. Few studies have explored their effectiveness in portraying procedural-motor information. Opportunities exist within an applied (manufacturing) context for instructional animations to be used to facilitate build performance on an assembly line. The present study compares build time performance across successive builds when using animation, static diagrams or text instructions to convey an assembly sequence for a handheld device. Although an immediate facilitating effect of animation was found, yielding a significantly faster build time for Build 1, this advantage had disappeared by Build 3.