从文字、思想、客观存在的关系看读书学习

书籍是以一定介质为载体,以文字符号为主要形式的存在,是凝固的语言。说话是人的发音器官通过气流振动周围空气而形成特定语音的现象,是流动的语言文字。它们都是物质的。语言表达思想,思想反映客观存在。读书听讲,学的是思想,目的是了解和把握客观存在,用它来指导实践。书本、思想、客观存在的这种关系给我们读书学习提供了有益的启示。     

SKOLEBYGGERI I PÆDAGOGISK BELYSNING.

Skjelf jord, V. J. 1975. Problems of Validity in Connection with the Concept of Auditory Discrimination between Speech Sounds. Scand. J. educ. Res. 19,153—173. Reading problems and articulatory defects are both said to derive from difficulties in discriminating between speech sounds. This hypothesis rests on the assumption that phonemes are sounds functioning in the production and perception of speech. An important theoretical consequence of the assumption is that correct pronunciation precludes discrimination difficulties. An attempt is made to show that the connection repeatedly found between reading scores and scores on tests for auditive discrimination between speech sounds in children with no articulatory defects, results from the fact that the tests really measure a special skill in phonemic segmentation, a skill which is promoted by the instruction in reading. The acquisition of this skill also explains the decrease in articulatory defects in this period.     

Phoneme segmentation training: Effect on reading readiness

Recent evidence suggests that the ability to segment words into phonemes is significantly related to reading success, and that training in phoneme segmentation appears to have a positive influence on beginning reading. In this study, we evaluated the effect on reading readiness of phoneme segmentation training in kindergarten. Ninety nonreaders with PPVT-R standard scores of 78 or higher were randomly selected from six kindergarten classrooms and assigned to one of three treatment conditions: a) phoneme segmentation group; b) language activities group (control group I); and c) no intervention (control group II). The phoneme segmentation group received seven weeks of instruction in segmentation and in letter names and sounds. Also for seven weeks, the language activities group received the identical instruction in letter names and sounds and additional language activities. Prior to the intervention, the three groups did not differ in age, sex, race, PPVT-R phoneme segmentation, letter name and letter sound knowledge, or reading ability. After the intervention, the phoneme segmentation group outperformed both control groups on phoneme segmentation and reading measures. This study provides additional strong support for including phoneme segmentation training in the kindergarten curriculum. Clinical suggestions for teachers are included. This project was supported in part by USDE grant # G008630421 and a Syracuse University Senate Research Grant.     

Speech production deficits in early readers: predictors of risk

Speech problems and reading disorders are linked, suggesting that speech problems may potentially be an early marker of later difficulty in associating graphemes with phonemes. Current norms suggest that complete mastery of the production of the consonant phonemes in English occurs in most children at around 6–7 years. Many children enter formal schooling (kindergarten) around 5 years of age with near-adult levels of speech production. Given that previous research has shown that speech production abilities and phonological awareness skills are linked in preschool children, we set out to examine whether this pattern also holds for children just beginning to learn to read, as suggested by the critical age hypothesis. In the present study, using a diverse sample, we explored whether expressive phonological skills in 92 5-year-old children at the beginning and end of kindergarten were associated with early reading skills. Speech errors were coded according to whether they were developmentally appropriate, position within the syllable, manner of production of the target sounds, and whether the error involved a substitution, omission, or addition of a speech sound. At the beginning of the school year, children with significant early reading deficits on a predictively normed test (DIBELS) made more speech errors than children who were at grade level. Most of these errors were typical of kindergarten children (e.g., substitutions involving fricatives), but reading-delayed children made more of these errors than children who entered kindergarten with grade level skills. The reading-delayed children also made more atypical errors, consistent with our previous findings about preschoolers. Children who made no speech errors at the beginning of kindergarten had superior early reading abilities, and improvements in speech errors over the course of the year were significantly correlated with year-end reading skills. The role of expressive vocabulary and working memory were also explored, and appear to account for some of these findings.     

Integration of the visual and auditory networks in dyslexia: a theoretical perspective

In addition to an intrinsic difficulty in reading and spelling, one of the defining characteristics of dyslexia is an enduring and pervasive difficulty in phonological coding, such that dyslexic readers find it particularly challenging to process and manipulate the constituent sounds of a language. Coexistent with this finding is the evidence that some dyslexic readers also demonstrate subtle sensory coding problems in the visual and auditory domains. Few theories have been proposed to unite these different findings within a coherent model of reading. Here the evidence for visual, auditory and phonological coding problems in dyslexia is briefly reviewed, and a hypothesis is proposed for how adequate early sensory coding may be intrinsic to phonological awareness and subsequent reading ability. In this hypothesis, a cortical network is assumed that incorporates the visual, auditory and phonological skills of reading. The visual sub‐component of the network is mediated by the dorsal visual pathway, which is responsible for the accurate spatial encoding of letters, words and text. The auditory component of the network in pre‐readers is intrinsic to the development of phonological sensitivity, and then grapheme‐phoneme assimilation as reading skills develop. In this hypothesis, some of the symptoms of dyslexia may result from subtle problems in the encoding of both visual and auditory information and their role in maintaining the synchronicity of the reading network.     

Whole Language vs. Code Emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction

Promoters of Whole Language hew to the belief that learning to read and write can be as natural and effortless as learning to perceive and produce speech. From this it follows that there is no special key to reading and writing, no explicit principle to be taught that, once learned, makes the written language transparent to a child who can speak. Lacking such a principle, Whole Language falls back on a method that encourages children to get from print just enough information to provide a basis for guessing at the gist. A very different method, called Code Emphasis, presupposes that learning the spoken language is, indeed, perfectly natural and seemingly effortless, but only because speech is managed, as reading and writing are not, by a biological specialization that automatically spells or parses all the words the child commands. Hence, a child normally learns to use words without ever becoming explicitly aware that each one is formed by the consonants and vowels that an alphabet represents. Yet it is exactly this awareness that must be taught if the child is to grasp the alphabetic principle and so understand how the artifacts of an alphabet transcribe the natural units of language. There is evidene that preliterate children do not, in fact, have much of this awareness; that the amount they do have predicts their reading achievement; that the awareness can be taught; and that the relative difficulty of learning it that some childen have may be a reflection of a weakness in the phonological component of their natural capacity for language. The preparation of this paper was aided by grants to Haskins Laboratories (NIH-NICHD-HD-01994) and to Yale University/Haskins Laboratories (NIH-21888-01A1). This paper is a revision of a talk given before The Orton Dyslexia Society in Dallas on November 29, 1989. For recent reviews that elaborate and document the views we here express, see: A. M. Liberman (1989) and I. Y. Liberman (1989).     

语言变异研究综述

语言系统同质说隐含的内在矛盾为语言变异理论的产生准备了充分的条件。语言变异理论认为语言是一种有序异质结构 ,与社会有紧密的联系 ,应当对它进行动态研究。引起语言变异的因素主要有语言的和非语言的两方面。语言变异可以从不同角度分类。语言变异研究不应局限于语音上 ,应扩大到词汇、语法层面     

浅谈言语行为和言语行为能力

言语行为理论是语用学的一个重要的组成部分。通过对言语行为的探究，我们可以更好的改进言语行为能力。毫无疑问，言语行为理论对语言研究具有巨大的启发意义。但显然语言理论不可能完全建立在言语行为理论的基础上，言语行为理论本身还有许多问题需要我们去探索。     

Using visual support in preschool phonemic segmentation training

In an earlier training study we found that the use of visual support in phonemic segmentation training provided no additional value for poor readers and spellers from schools for children with learning disabilities, having problems segmenting speech (Kerstholt, van Bon & Schreuder 1994). Previous research (e.g., Hohn & Ehri 1983) suggests, however, that visual support – such as alphabet letters – does facilitate the segmentation teaching of preschoolers. Hence, it was expected that visual support would be beneficial in phonemic segmentation training only prior to formal reading and spelling instruction. The purpose of the present study was to test this expectation. One group of preschoolers was trained in phonemic segmentation with diagrams and alphabet letters as visual support, another group was trained without visual help. Results show the preschoolers to improve their phonemic segmentation, reading and spelling skill significantly. It made no difference, however, whether the children were trained in phonemic segmentation with or without the help of visual support. The findings of the present study and those of our earlier study indicate visual support to be useful in phonemic segmentation training only under certain conditions. It is suggested that differences in orthographic properties of the languages involved may explain the difference between the Anglo-Saxon studies that did show an additional effect of letters and a number of Dutch studies that did not.     

二语习得中语音系统与非语音系统的辩证对应关系

语音系统为语言第一性,非语音系统为语言的第二性。语义是语言单位的意义,是思维的直接所指,即语言所指,它包括语音层面的语言所指和文字层面的语言所指,语义可以单独和语音或者文字结合,也可以和语音、文字三者结合在一起。语法是一种先天的内在语言能力,需要后天语言环境的刺激派生出语言现实,包括了语音语言现实和文字语言现实。习得语言,学习者必须明确学习目标:侧重学习语音语言,侧重学习文字语言,或者两者都一样重要,综合语言是最终学习目标。不同的学习目标,其学习方法和教学方法是有区别的。     

文本阅读中词切分依据及眼动表现

词切分是指在阅读过程中把连续的语言信息切分成有意义的单元,以促进文本的阅读与加工。拼音文字中的词间空格起到了词切分的作用;而中文属于表意文字,书写方式与拼音文字不同,没有词间空格。拼音文字阅读词切分的研究发现,词间空格标示了词切分的位置,是词切分的依据,而且,空格有效地引导读者的眼动行为;而中文的文本没有类似空格的词边界的标记,人为标记词边界不能促进阅读,但是人为添加的词间空格能够促进单词的早期识别。关于中文的词切分已有大量研究,但仍存在如下需要解决的问题:(1)对中文词切分的切分依据的研究还没有一致的结论;(2)中文阅读眼动控制模型的构建还不成熟;(3)词切分与初学者学习之间的关系有待研究;(4)对外汉语教学的教材如何有效处理词切分;等等。未来研究应在以上方面加以探讨。     

The status of metalinguistic skills in reading development.

Diane Sawyer (this issue) presents an account of reading development and its disabilities that stresses the contribution of a hierarchy of metalinguistic skills in the segmentation and manipulation of speech. Two of her central claims are discussed: (1) Failure to master the productive relationship between spelling and sound may often originate in difficulty in the prerequisite ability to carry out phonemic segmentation; the population so affected may include both "true" and "apparent" types of dyslexia, with rather different prognoses; and (2) a range of hierarchically and temporally organized sublexical metalinguistic speech skills govern the timecourse of reading development. Evidence from cognitive neuropsychological case reports is reviewed for its bearing on these claims and for its implications for the strong metalinguistic hypothesis, which contends that explicit, conscious mastery of the relationship between phonology and orthography is a necessary (and perhaps sufficient) precondition for the development of fluent reading.     

The use of speech feedback by normal and disabled readers in computer-based reading practice

Disabled readers and normal beginning readers were compared on requesting help in the form of speech feedback during computer-based word reading. It was also examined whether it is best to give feedback on all words or to allow the disabled readers to choose. Normal beginning readers and reading-age matched pupils with reading problems engaged in reading practice with speech feedback on call for both difficult and easy words. A set of both difficult and easy sums was completed as a control task. Another group of reading-disabled pupils who were also matched on reading level practiced the reading of words with unsolicited speech feedback. In the first two groups the selectivity in requesting help in both the reading and arithmetic task was assessed. All subjects were tested on the reading of both practiced and nonpracticed words. The results indicate that both disabled readers and beginners were very sensitive to sum difficulty but not to word difficulty, though in the present study the students were more selective than in a previous study. The inclusion of more easy words might account for this finding. The beginners requested help only during the first sessions of reading practice, whereas the disabled readers remained dependent on the speech feedback. The reading-disabled pupils did not learn less when the computer unsolicitedly delivered the spoken form of all words than when they were allowed to choose. It is discussed how profits from the different speech feedback procedures by disabled readers might be related to word decoding skill and metacognitive monitoring.     

Links among segmenting,spelling, and reading words in first and second Grades

Twenty first graders and twenty second graders were examined on skills in segmenting, reading, and spelling 50 words with regular and exceptional spelling patterns. By using the same words for each task, it was possible to assess the interrelationships among these skills on a word by word, child by child basis. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted on difference scores among segmentation, reading, and spelling. Generally, differences favored segmentation and were maximized when final sounds were deleted and minimized when medial sounds were deleted. In addition, graphical analyses showed a greater probability of correct reading and spelling given correct segmentation than incorrect segmentation. Results were interpreted to support a computational notion of phonology as a prerequisite to reading and spelling, with a more reflective notion explaining the reciprocal relation between reading and segmentation of consonant blends and medial sounds.     

Metaphonological Abilities of Phonologically Disordered Children

There is currently a great deal of interest in the underlying metaphonological abilities of children with phonological output impairment and their possible relationship with both the continuing speech problem and later literacy development. We present data from 61 children with phonological output problems and 59 normal speakers on a range of metaphonological, speech output, language and cognitive assessments. While supporting an overall group difference in metaphonological ability, the range of individual variation is highlighted. Some weak relationships were found between metaphonological skills and other language and cognitive performance, but not between metaphonological ability and severity of speech performance. The accepted developmental order of phonological awareness tasks was not entirely supported; rather, subgroups of children were found who were showing quite different orders of difficulty. A distinction between segmentation and rhyming skills was confirmed.     

维吾尔族学生英语听力学习障碍及应对措施

听力是英语学习中至关重要的一部分,听力水平的高低直接影响到学习的兴趣、热情和效果。因此,如何提高英语听力水平是学好英语的一项重要内容。论文指出了少数民族学生在英语听力学习中存在的问题之后,探讨了若干解决问题的途径。     

脑功能成像研究对语言功能一侧化的新认识

语言功能的半球一侧化是近一个半世纪以来科学研究的重要问题。近10多年来,运用fMRI、PET以及ERPs等脑功能成像手段,研究者发现语言功能的半球优势模式具有时间、空间的特异性和任务的相关性;它在个体发展的早期就已经显现,任务难度、生理成熟是影响一侧化年龄发展模式的重要中介因素;材料的语言属性而非物理特性可能是影响激活侧化的关键因素,语言功能的一侧化与大脑结构不对称性密切相关。这些结果大大丰富了人们对语言功能一侧化现象的认识,同时表明,运用脑功能成像技术,研究者已经开始触及到语言一侧化的核心问题,即其一侧化的内在认知与神经机制问题。     

Early language intervention: A deterrent to reading disability

Reading is a language art! In acquiring competence in reading we build on proficiencies already available in the primary (spoken) language system. Language is made up of three primary components that impact on reading—phonology, or the sound structure of language including syllables and phonemes; syntax, or the rules governing the sequential ordering of words in phrases and sentences; and semantics, or the meaning system that is attached to words and phrases as a consequence of experiences in a variety of contexts. All three depend upon adequate short- and long-term memory capacities and functioning for their growth and refinement. Additionally, the bridging of speech to print, or the task of establishing sound/symbol correspondences in beginning reading draws not only upon phonological competencies and memory, it is also dependent upon the discovery that words are made up of smaller and isolable parts. This knowledge is often referred to as auditory segmenting which is one aspect of metalinguistic awareness. This paper will discuss these five language roots of reading. The authors will report on research that demonstrates that children, upon school entrance, do not all possess equal levels of competencies in these five critical language areas. Since success in beginning reading is dependent upon the adequate development and functioning of each of the five language areas noted above, early school experiences should be directed toward language development, as well as reading instruction, if we are to reduce the incidence of reading difficulties in our schools. Finally, we will offer suggestions for enhancing language competencies that will support and promote the acquisition of reading.     

Inner speech in young French children's reading

The role of speech and inner speech in reading is contentious and the study of inner speech in reading is fraught with methodological problems. An approach sometimes used is the ‘e-cancelling’ method, where subjects are instructed to mark all incidences of the letter ‘e’ in a text so that inferences can be made from underlining ‘e's that would be silent versus those that would be sounded in speech. However, this method does not work well in the French language and, in attempting to use letter cancelling approaches with French children aged 7–8 years, we have used other vowels as targets. In this paper we present some results about the effects on rate of reading and comprehension of various tasks intended to induce attention to the sound of parts of the text. Our conclusion, in line with that of Liva (1987) and other researchers, is that, at this early stage of reading development, reference to the sound of text does not inhibit comprehension.