Extinction of a taste aversion in the absence of the consummatory response

Rats were initially conditioned to avoid saccharin presented orally and were then given 40 intravenous injections of saccharin or saline. Those injected with saccharin showed more rapid extinction of the aversion to saccharin presented orally. Results are related to studies of shock avoidance using curarized subjects.     

清以降词学批评对南北宋之宗的消解

清以降词学批评对南北宋之宗的消解,大致划分为四个时期:清代前期为导引与凸显,清代中期为承衍与拓展,清代后期为充实与深化,民国以降为完善与张扬.清以降词学批评对偏尚南北宋之论予以了不遗余力的消解,将兼融并取南北宋词的主张不断展衍与张扬开来,从一个视点有力地提升了词学批评的层次与水平.     

Maternal use of physical punishment in response to child misbehavior: implications for child abuse prevention

OBJECTIVE: The objective was to examine the roles of cognition and affect in maternal use of physical punishment. METHOD: Through a review of the literature, distal and proximal predictors (cognitive and affective) of physical punishment use were identified. One hundred and ten mothers of 3-year-old children were interviewed regarding two disciplinary situations that occurred during the previous 2-week period that elicited their strongest reactions: one which resulted in the use of physical punishment (if this occurred) and one which did not. The individual and combined contributions of the predictors of physical punishment use were analyzed through logistic regression. RESULTS: The predictors of physical punishment following individual analyses were: maternal attitude toward physical punishment, maternal perception of the seriousness and intent of the child misbehavior, and maternal anger in response to the child misbehavior. Through multivariate analysis 54% of the variance in physical punishment use was explained. CONCLUSIONS: Both cognitive and affective factors affect the decision to use physical punishment with children. These findings can be useful in establishing parenting educational programming that is directed at decreasing the rates of physical punishment and subsequently child physical abuse.     

论罪刑法定原则和刑罚个别化原则

罪刑法定原则和刑罚个别化原则是现代刑法两大基本原则,罪刑法定原则遵循的是严格规则主义,而刑罚个别化原则则要求司法的自由裁量权,这两大原则本质上是相互对立的。然而,由于各种因素的作用。两大原则逐渐出现折衷调和的趋势,主要表现在罪刑法定原则吸收刑罚个别比原则的合理因素,由绝对走向相对,而刑罚个别化原则是在罪刑法定框架内的自由裁量。     

就近入学与择校:两难问题何去何从

就近入学与择校是一个两难问题,尽管多数西方国家和少数发展中国家在20世纪80年代后尝试推行择校政策,但择校带来的问题也不少,引起的争议依然存在,没有一个国家找到了比较好的方法解决。在我国,就近入学是我国义务教育阶段的主要政策,但现实中择校广泛存在。解决这个两难问题,可以让部分地区先制定择校政策,待成熟后逐步推广。     

族刑浅论

族刑于公无前746年被正式定为刑罚，整个封建社会一直延续下来。本试通过对族刑发展过程的考察，探讨其处刑方式的变化和长期存在的原因。     

Response-cost punishment with pigeons: Further evidence of response suppression via token loss

Four pigeons responded on a two-component multiple token-reinforcement schedule, in which tokens were produced according to a random-interval 30-sec schedule and exchanged according to a variable-ratio 4 schedule in both components. To assess the effects of contingent token loss, tokens were removed after every second response (i.e., fixed-ratio 2 loss) in one of the components. Response rates were selectively lower in the loss components relative to baseline (no-loss) conditions, as well as to the within-condition no-loss components. Response rates were decreased to a greater degree in the presence of tokens than in their absence. To control for the effects of changes in the density of token and food reinforcement, two parts consisted of additional conditions where food density and token loss were yoked to those in a previous loss condition. In the yoked-food condition, tokens were produced as usual in both components, but the overall density of food reinforcement in one of the components was yoked to that obtained during a previous token-loss condition. In the yoked token-loss condition, tokens were removed during one component of the multiple schedule at a rate that approximately matched the obtained rate of loss from a previous token-loss condition. Response rates in these yoked components were less affected than those in comparable loss components, despite similar densities of token, exchange, and food reinforcement. On the whole, the results support the conclusion that contingent token loss serves as an effective punisher with pigeons.     

Student Preference Rates for Predominately Online,Compressed, or Traditionally Taught University Courses

Universities and colleges in the United States are actively searching for new ways to increase student enrollment as one means to offset recent government budget cuts in educational funding. One proposal at a particular institution involves transitioning a commuter university from a traditional semester length calendar to one that offers predominately online and compressed courses. University students responded to a survey, based on a number of variables, regarding their impressions of taking considerably more online and compressed courses in lieu of traditionally taught courses. While the students wanted to keep the traditional semester calendar, findings showed that some of the benefits of online and compressed teaching schedules were appealing.     

略论宣告死缓后的刑种变动

死缓是我国刑事立法的创举,但不是一个独立的刑种,具有相对不确定性,刑法第50条规定了缓期二年后死缓将变成相应确定的刑种,并有三种可能结果。文章对死缓刑种变动的三种情况逐一进行了研究探讨,并提出了新的见解。     

性别偏好的生成--一个生命历程理论视角的考察

性别偏好不仅为传统男权文化的产物,也是多数女人会经历的生育体验,所以女性的性别偏好现象更值得探讨。本文在田野工作所获得的材料和体验基础上,通过对一位普通农村妇女的生命历程的考察,试图对于农村妇女生命历程中的性别偏好进行溯源式研究。     

论监禁刑的执行

刑罚执行是刑事诉讼中具有重要作用,是刑事诉讼的最后一环,刑罚执行工作不仅关系到我国刑事立法能否落实到位,还关系到整个刑事诉讼活动是否完整,刑罚惩罚犯罪、保护人民的宗旨能否得到实现。监禁刑是一直是完善刑罚执行工作中的重中之重,监禁刑执行受到的重视程度要远远大于其他刑罚执行方式,但是受传统法律思想、立法缺陷等因素的制约,我国的监禁刑执行存在很多问题,监管中职务犯罪、虐待被监管人员等侵犯犯罪分子合法权益的现象经常发生,如何完善监禁刑执行制度,切实保障依法监管,保护犯罪分子的合法权益,是摆在我们面前一个非常重要的课题,对此,我从监禁刑执行中存在的问题着手谈一下完善措施。     

Attenuation of the intermittent punishment effect: The effect of interpolated punishment and nonreward trials

Intermittent punishment of a response is known to increase the persistence of that response to more intense and/or more frequent punishment. In the present experiment, rats with a history of intermittent punishment were subjected to blocks of trials on which every response was both punished and nonreinforced. In a subsequent test for persistence to a high level of punishment, these animals failed to show greater persistence than controls. The results were seen as evidence for the role of an association between fear and the intermittently punished response and were interpreted as consistent with a conditioning model interpretation of the effect of intermittent punishment training.     

Evidence for a calorically costly negative consummatory contrast effect in rats

For 2 h prior to their daily meal of Purina Chow, rats (which were 14% below ad-lib weight levels) had access to a sucrose solution. For half (Group 16-4), the solution was alternated daily between 18% and 4%; for the other half (Group 4-4), the solution was always 4%. On 18% days, Group 16-4 consumed significantly more calories and gained significantly more weight than did Group 4-4, because of a greater consumption of sucrose calories (Purina intake was similar for the two groups). On 4% days, however, Group 16-4 consumed both significantly fewer sucrose calories and significantly fewer Purina calories than did Group 4-4. These two contrast effects resulted in a 17% shortfall in total caloric intake for Group 16-4 on 4% days. As a consequence, Group 16-4 showed a significant drop in body weight, compared to Group 4-4, on 4% days. A second experiment was carried out to investigate whether the contrast-induced reduction in Purina intake shown by Group 16-4 on 4% days would be eliminated if (1) a 30-min interval separated sucrose ingestion from Purina ingestion, or (2) a 25-min interval plus 5-mmn exposure to 16% sucrose separated ingestion of 4% sucrose from Purina ingestion. Purina intake was still suppressed in Group 16-4 under both conditions.     

Modification of chicks’ pecking preferences: Food imprinting or instrumental conditioning?

Using Hess’ technique, 35 small groups of chicks of age 2–3 days or beyond were reinforced in training with food for pecking at one visual stimulus (S+) and nonreinforced for pecking at another (S?) and subsequently tested in extinction. In training, pecking was strongly conditioned to S+, but in testing, both number of pecks to and preference for S+ declined as in instrumental conditioning, contrary to Hess’ original report. Results are discussed relative to studies exposing chicks to actual food objects, where an imprinting-like phenomenon has been found.     

漫谈器乐教学

器乐的种类很多,各有其独特的音色和表现力,教师应该根据学生所学的乐器特点,教给学生基本的器乐知识与器乐演奏技巧,并根据学生各自特点的不同,因材施教。另外,为了提高学生的综合素质,有必要调整音乐文化课、基础文化课及专业技巧课之间的比重,培养学生的人文素养,为学生完美的器乐演奏奠定基础。     

“孔子晚而好《易》”考

《史记.孔子世家》言:“孔子晚而好《易》,序《彖》《系》《象》《说卦》《文言》。读《易》,韦编三绝,曰:‘假我数年,若是,我于《易》则彬彬矣。’”《周易》是儒家五经之一,包括上下经和十翼两部分。经作于西周初年,十翼源于孔子。汉唐大儒已有定论,但自北宋欧阳修起至20世纪,疑古者竭力否认十翼源于孔子。但《论语》、《史记》、《汉书》等古籍都明确指出十翼源于孔子,特别是《帛书周易》的出土,更为“孔子晚而好《易》”、十翼源于孔子提供了强有力的证据。     

Infants' Preference for the Predominant Stress Patterns of English Words

One critical aspect of language acquisition is the development of a lexicon that associates sounds and meanings; but developing a lexicon first requires that the infant segment utterances into individual words. How might the infant begin this process? The present study was designed to examine the potential role that sensitivity to predominant stress patterns of words might play in lexical development. In English, by far the majority of words have stressed (strong) initial syllables. Experiment 1 of our study demonstrated that by 9 months of age American infants listen significantly longer to words with strong/weak stress patterns than to words with weak/strong stress patterns. However, Experiment 2 showed that no significant preferences for the predominant stress pattern appear with 6-month-old infants, which suggests that the preference develops as a result of increasing familiarity with the prosodic features of the native language. In a third experiment, 9-month-olds showed a preference for strong/weak patterns even when the speech input was low-pass filtered, which suggests that their preference is specifically for the prosodic structure of the words. Together the results suggest that attention to predominant stress patterns in the native language may form an important part of the infant's process of developing a lexicon.     

论教育惩罚观

报应性惩罚观与功利性惩罚观分别把公正性、功利性作为教育中惩罚合理性的首要根据,具有一定合理性,但二者都没有把违纪学生的身心发展当作最终目的。教育惩罚观将教育性作为惩罚的中轴,这要求惩罚以一定的情感为基础,指向违纪学生,在道德层次上消减违规动机,保护学生的探索本性。公正性、功利性围绕着教育性这一中轴,惩罚才不会远离学生的发展。