Multi-informant assessment of maltreated children: convergent and discriminant validity of the TSCC and TSCYC

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the convergent and discriminant validity of two trauma symptom measures, the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC) [Briere, J. (1996). Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources] and the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC) [Briere, J. (2005). Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources]. METHODS: Children's scores on the TSCC and their caretakers' ratings on the TSCYC were analyzed in a study of 310 children presenting to one of two child abuse treatment centers. RESULTS: TSCC and TSCYC scales generally converged in their assessment of symptomatology in maltreated children. Equivalent scales measuring anxiety, depression, anger, dissociation, and sexual concerns were generally most correlated with one another. Similarly, the Posttraumatic Stress-Intrusion (PTS-I) scale of the TSCYC correlated highest with the Posttraumatic Stress (PTS) and Anxiety (ANX) scales of the TSCC, the TSCYC Posttraumatic Stress-Arousal (PTS-AR) scale was correlated with the TSCC ANX scale, and the TSCC PTS scale was most correlated with the TSCYC ANX, PTS-I, and Sexual Concerns (SC) scales. The TSCYC Posttraumatic Stress-Avoidance scale was unrelated to any TSCC scale. Discriminant function analysis revealed that the TSCC PTS scale was the best single predictor of sexual abuse-related PTSD status as identified by the TSCYC. CONCLUSIONS: The TSCC and TSCYC display moderate convergent and discriminant validity with respect to one another, despite different information sources. Nevertheless, the relatively small association between relevant TSCC and TSCYC scales indicates that different symptom informants may have different perspectives on the child's symptomatology; an outcome that may be beneficial when both measures are administered simultaneously. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: These results reinforce the notion that both child- and parent/caretaker report measures should be used in the evaluation of traumatized children, so that multiple sources of information can be considered simultaneously. In the current context, administration of the TSCC to the child and the TSCYC to the caretaker, when appropriate (i.e., in children 8-12 years of age) may yield more clinical information on the child's symptomatology than either measure would alone-perhaps especially in cases when one of the two respondents under- or over-reports the child's distress.     

Portuguese validation of the Separation Anxiety Scale for Children (SASC)

Separation anxiety symptoms are very common in children. The present study aims to examine the psychometric properties and the factorial structure of the Portuguese version of the Separation Anxiety Scale for Children (SASC). The participants included 874 children, 52% male, aged between 8 and 11 years (M = 9.50; SD = 1.15). Factor analysis supported the three-factor model found in the original scale. The instrument demonstrated to have good reliability for the total score (α = .81) and for its three factors (Discomfort from separation, α = .80; Worry about separation, α = .72; Calm at separation, α = .59). The validity, examined via the correlation of the SASC with the separation anxiety subscale of the SCARED, was satisfactory (r = .49); the test–retest reliability for the total scale was good (r = .81). The SASC was shown to have good psychometric properties for its use with Portuguese children for clinical and research purposes.     

Psychometric evaluation and comparison of three retrospective, multi-item measures of childhood sexual abuse

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and compare the psychometric qualities of three retrospective, multi-item measures of childhood sexual abuse (CSA): the CSA Frequency Scale, CSA Count Index, and CSA Multiple Characteristics Index. METHODS: Two samples of women 20-50 years old who experienced CSA were recruited from a family practice clinic (N=132) and the community (N=19). The measures were designed to represent the three most commonly used approaches for multi-item measurement of past CSA, as determined by a review of literature. Items were derived from a self-administered instrument from a larger study. The CSA Frequency Scale was evaluated for test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and criterion-related validity. The CSA Count and CSA Multiple Characteristics Indexes were evaluated for content specification, indicator specification, indicator collinearity, external validity, criterion-related validity, and test-retest reliability. Criterion-related validity variables were (a) physical and psychosocial symptomatology and (b) depression. RESULTS: Upon evaluation, all three measures met criteria for satisfactory quality, with one exception: external validity for both indexes. When compared across test-retest reliability and criterion-related validity results, none of the measures proved superior. Intraclass correlation coefficients for test-retest reliability ranged from .92 to .94; correlations with the criterion-related validity variables ranged from r=.36 to .41. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the continued use of established scales similar to the CSA Frequency scale. In addition, the results suggest further development and standardization of indexes similar to the CSA Count and Multiple Characteristics Indexes is warranted.     

Effect of number of response options on the psychometric properties of Likert-type scales used with children

Although Likert-type rating scales are used in a great number of early childhood studies, knowledge of how the number of response options affects the psychometric properties of scales used with children is limited. The purpose of this study is to contribute to this knowledge. Data were collected from second grade students and third grade students. Accordingly, 1,092 second- and third-graders completed a 2-point, 3-point, and 4-point version of the School Attachment Scale for Children and Adolescents. Participants came from 11 schools, different in terms of socioeconomic status. The children received the versions approximately three weeks apart. Results revealed that as the number of response options increased, the means tended to decrease and the distribution to be normal. For the 2-point version, most items were below the cut-off point in terms of discrimination indexes. Compared to the 2-point version, there was a significant increase in discrimination indexes for the 3- and 4-point versions, and the items’ discrimination indexes were high. It was concluded that the reliability coefficient increased with an increasing number of response options for all subdimensions of the scale. When the validity estimations of the three subdimensions were examined for the three versions of the scale, it was found that the 3- and 4-point versions were appropriate for the validity and that the validity of the 2-point version was weak. It was observed that using 2-point Likert-type scales with children negatively affected the psychometric properties and that these properties improved with an increased number of response options.     

The child sexual behavior inventory: Reliability and validity in a Dutch normative and clinical sample

BackgroundThe Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI) is one of the few instruments available to assess sexual behavior in children. Because of cross-cultural differences in the definition of normal and atypical sexual behaviors, the CSBI is not generalizable to other countries.ObjectiveThe current study examined psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the CSBI.Participants and settingThe study represents 3206 children from a normative sample, and 932 children from clinical samples.MethodsParents ratings on the CSBI, and questionnaires for psychosocial problems were obtained to assess psychometric properties.ResultsResults showed that Dutch parents interpret more CSBI items as developmentally appropriate than USA parents. Reliability coefficients indicated internal consistency (α = .39–.82), test-retest (r = .86, p < .000) and interrater reliability (Cohen's d =0.47, p >.05). Positive correlations between the CSBI total scale and the subscales demonstrated content validity (r = .32–.96, p < .01). Differences between normative and clinical samples on the CSBI total (ηp² = .01–.65, p < .000), DRSB (ηp² = .00–.03, p = .00–.38) and SASI scales (ηp² =.00–.18, p < .01) indicated construct validity. Within the clinical samples, highest associations were found between the CSBI score and convergent measures (r = .64, p < .000). Lowest associations were found between the CSBI scores and divergent measures r = .14–.54, p = n.s.−<.000.ConclusionsCross-cultural differences in the perception of developmental appropriate sexual behavior underscore the importance of country-specific normative data. Good psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the CSBI were supported by this study.     

Tablets instead of paper-based tests for young children? Comparability between paper and tablet versions of the mathematical Heidelberger Rechen Test 1-4

Tablets can be used to facilitate systematic testing of academic skills. Yet, when using validated paper tests on tablet, comparability between the mediums must be established. Comparability between a tablet and a paper version of a basic math skills test (HRT: Heidelberger Rechen Test 1–4) was investigated. Five samples with second and third grade students participated. The associations between the tablet and paper version of HRT showed that these modes of administration were comparable for three arithmetic scales, but unacceptable for a pictorial counting scale. Scores were lower on tablet. Test-retest reliability for arithmetic scales on tablet was satisfactory, but was inferior for a low-performing sample. The overall convergent validity was satisfactory. No effect of test administrator was found. Arithmetic scales can potentially be transferred to tablet with good comparability and maintained test-retest reliability. Precautions are necessary when transferring pictorial scales into tablet. Separate norms for tablet are needed when interpreting scores.     

A comparison of sexually abused and non-sexually abused adolescents in a clinical treatment facility using the MMPI-A

OBJECTIVE: In the current study, the adolescent version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the MMPI-A, was used to address concerns voiced about the mixing of different developmental ages, use of inadequate comparison groups, and the lack of reliance on reliable and valid measures of psychological, behavioral, and psychosocial problems used in previous studies of sexually abused children and adolescents. METHOD: A total of 107 adolescents in residential treatment (73 boys and 34 girls) were included in the study. Seventy-two of these adolescents had reportedly been sexually abused (42 boys and 30 girls); 35 had not been abused (31 boys and 4 girls). Predictions based on previous research with adolescents were made and tested regarding which MMPI-A validity, clinical, and content scales would differ between the sexually abused and non sexually abused groups of adolescents. RESULTS: Overall, and consistent with many predictions, sexually abused adolescents had both statistically and clinically higher elevations on several MMPI-A scales than did their non-abused counterparts. No scales were more elevated for non-abused adolescents than for abused adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Sexually abused adolescents in residential treatment, as a group, present with concerns that their non-abused counterparts did not have, or did not share to the same extent. Treatment recommendations based on the MMPI-A scale elevations are provided, limitations of the current study discussed, and directions for further research are suggested.     

Development and initial validation of a scale to measure emotional abuse among school children aged 13-15 years in Sri Lanka

OBJECTIVE: To develop a scale to measure emotional abuse among school children aged 13-15 years in Sri Lanka that can be used in field settings. METHOD: Emotional abuse was defined based on available literature. Review of literature and discussions with a panel identified 85 items indicating abusive behaviors. Content validity and social acceptability were achieved by getting the views of this same panel and parents, respectively. Item analysis and assessment of validity were carried out based on the responses to the draft instrument by 105 children aged 13-15 years attending a school in an urban slum area. The test-retest reliability of the scale was assessed using the responses from 144 students from a different school. Criterion validity was established by comparing the independent assessments of a psychiatrist for the presence or absence of emotional abuse with the respective scores of the children on the scale. RESULTS: The scale developed to assess emotional abuse included 46 items having a Cronbach alpha of .89. The test-retest reliability was .73. A cutoff score of 95 was identified at a sensitivity of 76.9% and a specificity of 51.4%. CONCLUSIONS: A scale that had a satisfactory level of reliability and validity was socially acceptable, which could be used in school settings in Sri Lanka was developed to enable identification of emotional abuse among school children aged 13-15.     

Reliability and Validity of a Chinese Version of the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire

This study tested the applicability of the 34-item CDDQ (Gati &; Saka, 2001) for use with adolescents from the Peoples Republic of China. The study devised a Chinese version of the scale using translation and back-translation, administered it to a sample of 514 Chinese adolescents, tested the psychometric properties of the scale in terms of factor structure and reliability, and examined its validity by testing associations with demographic variables (age, gender, paid work experience, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement) and scales tapping career decision-making self-efficacy and barriers. Results identified two stable factors for the CDDQ, namely Lack of Information and Inconsistent Information, but failed to confirm the third CDDQ factor of Readiness to make a career decision. Factor structure and reliability for the two identified factors were sound, and these factors related in the expected directions to demographic variables and the other career scales. Implications for use of the CDDQ in China are highlighted, and recommendations are made for the revision of the Readiness dimension.     

The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC): reliability and association with abuse exposure in a multi-site study

OBJECTIVE: The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC) is a 90-item caretaker-report measure of children's trauma- and abuse-related symptomatology. It contains two reporter validity scales and eight clinical scales [Post-traumatic Stress-Intrusion (PTS-I), Post-traumatic Stress-Avoidance (PTS-AV), Post-traumatic Stress-Arousal (PTS-AR), Post-traumatic Stress-Total (PTS-TOT), Sexual Concerns (SC), Dissociation (DIS), Anxiety (ANX), Depression (DEP), and Anger/Aggression (ANG)], as well as an item assessing hours per week of caretaker contact with the child. This paper introduces the TSCYC and describes its psychometric properties in a multisite validity study. METHOD: A total of 219 TSCYCs administered by six clinician/researchers across the United States were analyzed for scale reliability and association with several types of childhood maltreatment. RESULTS: The TSCYC clinical scales have good reliability and are associated with exposure to childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing domestic violence. The PTS-I, PTS-AV, PTS-AR, and PTS-TOT scales were most predictive, followed by SC in the case of sexual abuse and DIS in the case of physical abuse. There were a small number of age, sex, and race effects on TSCYC scores. CONCLUSIONS: The TSCYC appears to have reasonable psychometric characteristics, and correlates as expected with various types of trauma exposure. Subject to continued validation and the development of general population norms, its use as a clinical measure is supported.     

Cross-validation of the Norwegian Teacher's Self-Efficacy Scale (NTSES)

The study assesses the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale – NTSES. Multiple group confirmatory factor analysis was used to explore the measurement invariance of the scale across two countries. Analyses performed on Italian and Norwegian samples confirmed a six-factor structure of the scale with a strong factorial invariance. The analyses conducted on the Italian sample supported good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The Italian version of the NTSES showed expected correlations with measures of job-related well-being. These results confirm the good psychometric properties of the Italian version of the NTSES.     

Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to develop and validate a short form of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (the CTQ-SF) as a screening measure for maltreatment histories in both clinical and nonreferred groups. METHOD: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 70 original CTQ items were used to create a 28-item version of the scale (25 clinical items and three validity items) and test the measurement invariance of the 25 clinical items across four samples: 378 adult substance abusing patients from New York City, 396 adolescent psychiatric inpatients, 625 substance abusing individuals from southwest Texas, and 579 individuals from a normative community sample (combined N=1978). RESULTS: Results showed that the CTQ-SF's items held essentially the same meaning across all four samples (i.e., measurement invariance). Moreover, the scale demonstrated good criterion-related validity in a subsample of adolescents on whom corroborative data were available. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the viability of the CTQ-SF across diverse clinical and nonreferred populations.     

Development and psychometric evaluation of a new assessment method for childhood maltreatment experiences: The interview for traumatic events in childhood (ITEC)

ObjectiveWe conducted a comprehensive assessment of the reliability and validity of the Interview for Traumatic Events in Childhood (ITEC, Lobbestael, Arntz, Kremers, & Sieswerda, 2006), a retrospective, semi-structured interview for childhood maltreatment. The ITEC aims to yield dimensional scores for severity of experiences of different childhood maltreatment dimensions.MethodsInitial psychometric properties were tested with the pilot version of the ITEC in 362 participants. A second study assessed the revised ITEC in 217 participants, patients and non-patients.ResultsFactor analyses produced the best fit for a five-factor model (sexual, physical and emotional abuse, physical and emotional neglect). The scales had good internal consistency, except for the physical neglect subscale, and excellent inter-rater reliability. The scales were highly associated with equivalent scales of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (i.e., good convergent validity), and showed good correspondence with patient file information (i.e., good criterion validity).ConclusionThese results support the reliability and validity of the ITEC, making it a potentially useful tool for assessing a broad range of traumatic events in childhood.Practice implicationThe first step in therapy for dealing with childhood maltreatment is to map abusive experiences and assess their severity and impact. Since maltreatment is a sensitive topic that is not reported on easily, trauma interviews are promising assessment instruments since they provide the opportunity to probe and clarify. There are hardly any well-validated trauma interviews available that assess the extent of maltreatment in and outside the family in various dimensions. The current study tries to fill this gap by presenting a new trauma interview; the Interview for Traumatic Events in Childhood.     

Measuring Parental Meta-Emotion: Psychometric Properties of the Emotion-Related Parenting Styles Self-Test

Parental meta-emotion, assessed through interviews, involves parents' philosophy about emotions and has been found to be related to parenting behaviors and children's emotional and social competence (e.g., Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996; Katz & Windecker-Nelson, 2004). The Emotion-Related Parenting Styles Self-Test is a true-false (ERPSST-T/F) self-report version of the meta-emotion interview introduced in a parenting guidebook (Gottman, 1997). Although this test is user-friendly, its psychometric properties have not been evaluated. In the first study, 100 parents (89 mothers, 11 fathers) completed the ERPSST-T/F and evidence was found for the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the measure (Lee, Hakim-Larson, & Voelker, 2000). In the second study, 31 parents (21 mothers, 10 fathers) completed a Likert-type scale version of the ERPSST (ERPSST-Likert) and the internal consistency of the scales was improved. In addition, the scales were found to correlate in expected directions with other measures of parenting attitudes regarding children's emotional expressions, even after controlling for parent gender and social desirability. These findings provide some preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the ERPSST-Likert and provide support for further development of the instrument.     

Construction and Validation of a Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS)

The Chinese Value of Learning Scale (CVLS) is a 5-item instrument for assessing the value of learning in Chinese culture. The psychometric properties of CVLS were investigated in a convenient sample of 583 Chinese soon-to-be-aged adults in Hong Kong. CVLS possesses high internal consistency and exhibited satisfactory short-term test-retest reliability. CVLS also exhibited high face validity and mild convergent validity with other 48-item openness-to-experience scale (OTES) from Revised NEO Personality Inventory, and is significantly related to the past and actual learning experience. In view of its brevity and easy administration, CVLS offers a useful instrument to further investigate the value of learning in Chinese culture and its possible relationship with adults' learning behaviour.     

The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: reliability, validity, and national norms

OBJECTIVE: To assess the utility and performance of the 34-item Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) in eliciting the recent victimization experiences of a national sample of children ages 2-17. METHOD: The JVQ was administered in a national random digit dial telephone survey about the experiences of 2,030 children. The experiences of children 10-17 years old were assessed through youth self-report on the JVQ, and the experiences of children 2-9 assessed through JVQ caregiver proxy report. RESULTS: Large numbers of recent victimizations were disclosed using the JVQ (71% of the sample reporting at least one victimization in the last year, with an average of 2.63 victimizations per child). There were few indicators of respondent confusion and little resistance to even the most sensitive questions. In a test of construct validity, endorsements of JVQ items correlated well with measures of traumatic symptoms. The instrument showed adequate test-retest reliability in a 3 to 4 week re-administration. Large numbers of victimizations were reported across the spectrum of ages, and there were no major discontinuities between the self-reports and proxy reports, suggesting that caregivers provided generally adequate and comparable information to child self-reports about the experiences of children under the age of 10. CONCLUSION: The JVQ has potential for use in future epidemiological research as well as clinical evaluation concerning the victimization of children.     

Development and validation of two scales to measure elaboration and behaviors associated with stewardship in children

This investigation examines the development of two scales that measure elaboration and behaviors associated with stewardship in children. The scales were developed using confirmatory factor analysis to investigate their construct validity, reliability, and psychometric properties. Results suggest that a second-order factor model structure provides the best fit. This model produced: (1) a stewardship elaboration scale measuring interest and cognitive engagement in stewardship issues, and (2) a stewardship behavior scale measuring in-park, community, and home behaviors. These scales will be useful for evaluating environmental educational programs focused on environmental and park stewardship. The scales may also help researchers assess whether environmental education results in participants elaborating on persuasive messaging, thereby increasing the likelihood that behavioral intentions leading to behavior change will occur.