In search of inclusion

This article provides a context within which other contributions to this issue might be read. It examines the position of special educational needs (SEN) within the evolving continuum of education in Northern Ireland, specifically within the context of educational inclusion. It describes recent changes in educational policy and legislation which are likely to impact on the inclusion of children with special educational needs, examines inclusion within the mainstream schools and the role of special schools.     

Experiencing an ‘inclusive’ education: parents and their children with ‘special educational needs’

This paper focuses on the experiences of British parents who have children identified with ‘special education needs’ within mainstream education. Expectations of mainstream education can have a negative affect on parents when a child is unable to maintain his or her education within a mainstream school. In England and Wales, ‘inclusion’ within mainstream schools is implemented by the current government and promoted as anti‐exclusionary. However, current research indicates that actual ‘inclusion’ (the child experiencing inclusion as well as being placed in a mainstream environment) is not necessarily occurring in practice. As it stands, the conflict is between desires to embrace difference based on a philosophy of ‘equal rights’ (‘inclusive’ education) and prioritising educational performance, structuring it in such a way that it leaves little room for difference and creativity due to the highly structured testing and examination culture. Qualitative analysis of parents who have children identified with special educational needs indicate that they have hopes and expectations for their children. These hopes and expectations are challenged recurrently.     

Partnerships between special and mainstream schools

Mainstreaming and inclusion of students with special educational needs in regular education, challenge traditional concepts and common practices. Traditionally, special education has been a parallel yet separate educational system. Even though there is almost universal agreement on the goals of inclusion and mainstreaming, special education schools have proved to be resilient and still exist in many countries. One approach to promoting the goal of inclusion is the establishment of collaborative partnerships between special and mainstream schools. This paper will discuss models of such partnerships based on a literature review and visits to partner special and mainstream schools in Israel. Positive elements of these partnerships as well as challenges involved are presented.     

Parental perspectives and challenges in inclusive education in Singapore

Relatively little work has focused on inclusive education in Singapore. This study examines the experiences and perceptions of parents whose children with disabilities are attending mainstream secondary schools in Singapore. Data was drawn from interviews with 13 parents of children with mild disabilities. Our findings reveal that parental perspective on inclusive education in Singapore is not only about classroom support but also reflects a deeper concern about whether their children with disabilities will emerge from school as contributing individuals in society. While parents strive to effectively include their children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, there were dichotomies in their (1) understanding of disabilities, (2) expectations of school support, and (3) expectations for their child with disabilities. Given that academic and social prowess is a critical prerequisite to have a shot at entering the meritocratic Singapore society, the tension parents experience is to gauge a reasonable amount of pressure to exert on their children, the school and themselves as they assert their children's educational entitlements within an imperfect but evolving state of inclusion.     

Case study on special needs education in Pakistan: the process of inclusion

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an overview of the present educational system and structures in Pakistan. Historical developments in special education are reviewed, and legislation, policy, administration and organization at the national, regional and local levels are described. Efforts are under way in Pakistan to move away from the dual system of education, in which children with special educational needs receive educational services in special schools, towards an inclusive school system. Initiatives to mainstream children are being launched in pilot projects, and efforts are being made to build linkages between special and regular schools. Under the term ‘special needs education’, the trend is to shift the focus from disability categories towards building the capacity of the schools and providing needed support services. It is envisioned that the first step in promoting inclusion is to consolidate the dual administrative structure into a single system, with a clearly defined policy and plan for accommodating children with special needs within ordinary schools.     

Inclusive Education in Brunei Darussalam

This paper describes major developments in Brunei Darussalam during the past decade that highlight inclusive education as a significant educational agenda. A brief history of disability services is first described to provide a backdrop of pre-1994 developments and activities that occurred in the country. Next, the education system in Brunei is introduced with specific reference to how special education became relevant to serving the needs of students with special needs within the mainstream school system. Major developments in the inclusion movement during the past decade are then described in terms of policy, implementation and teacher education. The article concludes with a discussion on current local research that seeks to inform the direction of practice and policy of inclusive education in Brunei Darussalam.     

Understanding inclusion in Cyprus

This paper provides a framework for understanding inclusion in Cyprus. The evidence base is the result of a six-month qualitative research study in five Cypriot mainstream primary schools. Despite the rhetoric in favour of inclusion, it seems that the Cypriot educational system is still highly segregating in its philosophy and does not fully support the active inclusion and participation of all children in the school life. Overall, the framework is grounded on three key themes emerging from the research: inclusion is concerned only with the education of specific groups of children; the medical model is still prevalent within inclusion discourse; and inclusion is understood as consisting of different levels. As a result, a restructuring and transformation of inclusive education are necessary so as to reduce marginalisation and exclusion of many children and in particular those who have been identified as having special educational needs.     

Supporting Disability Education through a Combination of Special Schools and Disability-Inclusive Schools in the Pacific Islands

This article reports on a multi-method study of the ways in which special and mainstream schools support the educational needs of children with disabilities in Fiji. The aims of the study were: (1) to identify capacity and functions of special schools to support inclusive mainstream schools for children with disabilities; and (2) to explore the capacity of mainstream disability-inclusive schools in meeting the needs of children with disabilities. Results from the special education survey indicated that type of disability, geographic location and controlling authority were associated with transition to mainstream education. Findings from the action research study suggest that supportive school leadership and positive attitudes towards disability and inclusion contribute to greater mobilisation of supporting resources. However, limitations in facilities and resources currently pose barriers which prevent inclusion for all students with disabilities. Together, these findings indicate that special and inclusive mainstream schools jointly support disability-inclusive education in Fiji.     

Ideologies and utopias: education professionals' views of inclusion

The paper addresses the contrast between different elements in thinking about the appropriate educational placement for children with special educational needs. In particular, it is concerned with the tension between the widespread expressions of support for the principle of inclusion and a continuing level of support for separate special school provision. Evidence from interviews with education officers and headteachers of both special and mainstream schools in the UK demonstrates the support for inclusion as an ideal but also the relatively limited influence of such an ideal on education policy. Considerable reservations were expressed about the feasibility of inclusion, based on the types and severity of children's difficulties and the capacity of mainstream schools to meet them. Contrasting with support for inclusion was a set of views which stressed the primacy of meeting children's individual needs as overriding an ideological commitment to inclusionist ideals. Themes within utopian thinking, in particular, the distinction between hope and desire and the different functions which can be served by utopian ideals, are used to explore tensions and contradictions in the interview responses and in educational thinking more generally.     

A comparative perspective on the experiences of deaf and hard of hearing individuals as students at mainstream and special schools

Integration of individuals categorized as having special educational needs in mainstream schools has become a dominant policy in many countries. Changes in recent years in the field traditionally called "special education" have significantly influenced the education of deaf and hard of hearing individuals. The movements against segregation and toward integration and, more recently, inclusion, have created the conditions for educational changes, not only in mainstreaming but in special education. The article brings to light the views and experiences of deaf and hard of hearing people as students at special schools and mainstream schools, in order to compare the two systems from the viewpoints of those involved and to explore the possible implications of these views and experiences for the development of the educational system in Cyprus regarding inclusive education. Particular attention is given to improvement of the education of deaf and hard of hearing children.     

Hopes and fears: stakeholder views on the transfer of special school resources towards inclusion

This paper reviews the findings and wider policy implications of an evaluation of two pilot projects for the inclusion of disabled pupils from special schools into mainstream settings in a single English education authority. These included (a) paired Partnerships between schools, and (b) the use of special school staff and resources in a Support role within mainstream schools. The focus of the schemes was to promote the inclusion of those children with more complex impairments and health conditions not ‘easily’ included in mainstream settings. The research investigated the views and experiences of all stakeholders in the process, including pupils, parents, support staff, health professionals, teachers and senior managers. Although there was shared support for the principle of inclusion, there were significant differences of emphasis and concern among the different groups. In this paper, we review the commonalities and differences in these stakeholder views and highlight six key areas for evaluating process and outcome in the inclusion of disabled children. These findings are analysed within the wider context of UK educational policy and the inclusion literature. The paper concludes that although the pilot schemes under consideration had relatively little impact, they highlight a number of important tensions in the debate over inclusion, competition and managerialism in the British schooling system under the New Labour government.     

Moving towards inclusive education in Cyprus?

Within the last decade, the government of Cyprus has encouraged and supported the education of children assessed as having special needs into the mainstream educational system. With the existing arrangements, however, many pupils who experience difficulties within schools (and many of those are pupils who have been integrated from special schools) are marginalized or even excluded from teaching. This paper looks at the existing arrangements of special education in Cyprus by analysing local practice to identify barriers to inclusion, to consider ways of improving schools and classrooms in relation to policy‐making, and to see how to go forward towards inclusive education. Using four stories from the author’s involvement with one school, and reflecting on them, the author presents what was seen as barriers to providing more inclusive education.     

Inclusion: the role of special and mainstream schools

For children with special educational needs, seeds were sown for the move away from segregated settings to inclusion in mainstream settings following the 1978 Warnock Report. However, the ‘special versus mainstream school’ debate was re‐ignited in 2005 when Warnock recommended a more significant role for special schools than previously envisaged. Furthermore, an increase in special school placement has been reported, prompting this investigation of the role of special schools in the current climate of inclusion. Literature from Britain, Europe and New Zealand, including research that listens to ‘the voice of the child’, which compares experiences of children with special educational needs in special and mainstream schools, is reviewed. The findings give no clear indication that either setting leads to better outcomes. Tensions between the inclusion agenda and standards agenda are highlighted. It is concluded that special schools in reduced numbers are likely to remain a feature of the inclusive education system, with recommendations for the development of special–mainstream school partnership links. The quality of the setting, regardless of the type of setting, is emphasised, highlighting implications for staff training in special and mainstream schools. Further research comparing outcomes for children educated in different types of provision is recommended.     

Services for children with dyslexia – the child’s experience

This study evaluates and compares special educational services for children with dyslexia in three different Irish educational settings: special schools, reading units and mainstream resource provision. The emphasis is on the child’s experience of special education. Participants were dyslexic children aged 8–13 who had been accessing special educational services for two academic years. Data collection involved individual interviews with each of the 100 children. Further data about the child’s experience were collected by parental questionnaire. Results suggested that while children overall were happy and evaluated special educational services positively across all three settings, children in special schools and reading units seemed to be happier and to have more positive experiences than children attending mainstream resource provision. The discussion considers the implications of these findings in the context of the inclusion debate in special education. It also considers the limitations of this small‐scale study and the need for further research.     

Paying the price for being inclusive: the story of Marshlands

This article illustrates, through the story of one mainstream primary school, the tensions between the inclusion agenda and the standards agenda. The school is situated in an area of social deprivation and nearly half of the school population have been identified as having special educational needs. The story presented in this article illustrates powerfully the inherent injustice of the performative culture which pervades education and the effects of this discourse for children with special educational needs and their teachers. I argue that a policy change is needed to create a more equitable education system and that, in the absence of such a change, schools such as the one presented here will risk being categorised as failing schools. This will have disastrous consequences for the teachers' careers, children's self‐concepts and the inclusion agenda itself.     

From concepts to practice in deaf education: a United kingdom perspective on inclusion

This article considers the different ways that inclusion is conceived in the United Kingdom by government, teachers, and academics. I contend that a concept of inclusion based primarily on the notion of students with special educational needs being in mainstream schools is unhelpful to educators of deaf children and that a broader concept is needed. A working definition of inclusion is presented based on a system of values. I suggest "indicators of inclusion for deaf students" and illustrate with examples of practice. Some basic information on the education of deaf children in the United Kingdom is included.     

A special teacher for a special child? (Re)considering the role of the special education teacher within the context of an inclusive education reform agenda

Notwithstanding the recent signing and ratification by Cyprus of another International Convention on the rights of students designated as having special educational needs and/or disabilities to attend mainstream schools on an equal basis with their peers, local policy and practice promote an ‘exclusionary inclusion’ that draws a discernible line between general and special education. This paper concentrates on exploring the role of special education teachers in Cyprus in the light of policy concerns about providing the ‘least restrictive’ learning environment for this group of students and enabling them ‘to reach their full potential’. It is suggested that the role of special education teachers embodies and reflects reductionist forms of inclusion informed by deficit-oriented and assimilationist special education perspectives, while there is also evidence of a lack of professionalism and accountability. The paper draws on head teachers’ and special education teachers’ interviews in order to portray the ways in which they view and experience the role of special education teachers in mainstream schools in Cyprus. New objectives and future directions are identified and discussed.     

The standards agenda: reflections of a special educational needs co‐ordinator

This study is a life history account of Bev, a special educational needs co‐ordinator who works in a primary school in England. The research examines how, within Bev's experiences, the discourses of integration and inclusion have affected learners with special educational needs. Additionally, the study examines the impact of the ‘performativity’ agenda on a mainstream school with a high proportion of learners with special educational needs. The account illustrates how, in Bev's experiences, inclusion operates within a powerful othering framework which marginalises children with special educational needs and their teachers. Additionally, the account raises questions about the risks of choosing to work in schools with high proportions of children with special educational needs within a discourse of performativity. It raises questions about whether the inclusion agenda has resulted in limited forms of inclusion and whether it was easier to meet children's holistic needs under the integration agenda.     

What is the reality of ‘inclusion’ for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties in the primary classroom?

Abstract

Current education policy is oriented towards including children with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms. Hitherto they have been, on the whole, educated in special schools. Children with special educational needs include those who are physically disabled, those with learning difficulties and those with emotional and behavioural difficulties. It is the inclusion of this last group which is raising problems in mainstream classrooms. The article draws on psychoanalytic concepts in order to examine the reality of inclusion for three primary-age children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Observational material is presented which shows the impact of inclusion policy on the children, their teachers and their learning support assistants. There is also discussion of the work of the behaviour support teacher, whose job is to reduce exclusions and help schools to become more inclusive.