Syntactic complexity as a predictor of adolescent writing quality: Which measures? Which genre?

This study examined the relationship of different measures of syntactic complexity with rated quality for two genres of text produced by middle school students. It was hypothesized that different measures would be associated with distinct aspects of syntactic complexity; words per clause with greater use of structures more typical of expository texts, and clauses per T-unit with structures more typical of conversational or narrative registers. A sample of 41 seventh and eighth grade students from suburban middle schools composed a narrative and persuasive essays. Texts were rated for quality and coded for syntactic features including words per clause and clauses per T-unit. Syntactic complexity as measured in words per clause was positively correlated with quality for essays but not for narratives. Clauses per T-unit was positively correlated with quality for narratives, but negatively correlated with quality for essays. The relationships between syntactic complexity and text quality were thus found to be dependent both on the genre of the text, and the measure of syntactic complexity used.     

Syntactic complexity measures: variation by genre,grade-level,students’ writing abilities,and writing quality

Syntactic complexity has been recognized as an important construct in writing research, and for the past five decades, many syntactic complexity measures (SCMs) have been examined in numerous studies. This systematic review is the first study of its kind to synthesize 36 studies spanning from 1970 to 2019 by identifying and cataloging all SCMs examined during this period. An analysis was performed on how the use of SCMs varied by genre, grade level, students’ writing ability, and writing quality. Five online databases (Academic Search Premier, ERIC, PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, and PsycARTICLES) were searched. A total of 48 SCMs were grouped into six categories: T-units and sentences, clauses, phrases, words, combined measures, and other measures. Most studies examined three common SCMs: mean T-unit length, mean number of words per clause, and mean number of clauses per T-unit. The argumentative genre had the highest values for T-unit length and mean number of clauses per T-unit, which could indicate greater sentence complexity. Higher-grade-level students generally construct sentences that are syntactically complex, but comparison between studies was difficult because different studies investigated different SCMs. Although students with higher writing abilities generally construct sentences that are syntactically more complex compared to students with lower writing abilities, the findings are not conclusive, as only a few studies examined this relationship. A similarly inconclusive relationship was found between syntactic complexity and writing quality because only a few studies examined this relationship. More research is needed to examine the relationship between SCMs, writing quality, and genre.

     

Syntactic complexity in written expression of LD college writers

Thirty-three college students enrolled in a special LD program at a small liberal arts college were compared with thirty-three non-LD peers in the syntactic complexity of their writing when asked to write an expository essay on an assigned topic within a 30-minute time limit. The essays after being scored holistically were then prepared for computer scoring based on T-units using the Syntactic Density Scoring procedure (SDS). This program was designed to assess syntactic complexity or degree of embeddedness as one important aspect of good writing. The SDS was comprised of 10 variables which were assigned different weights and then used in calculating the SDS. LD college writers did not differ significantly on the SDS or the corrected SDS (CSDS) score. However, they did differ on two of the variables thought to be more sensitive measures of syntactic complexity, the number of subordinate clauses per T-unit and the main clause word length. The results of the factor analysis confirmed that the SDS provides supplementary information to other written expressive language tools presently used. Limitations of this procedure are discussed and recommendations for refinement of the SDS and its potential in the future are described. This research was supported in part by the June Lyday Orton Language Disability Trust and the U.S. Office of Special Education, Department of Education (US HEW OE 300 700 493)     

The relationship between vocabulary and writing quality in three genres

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of vocabulary in writing across three genres. Fifth graders (N = 105) wrote three compositions: story, persuasive, and informative. Each composition revolved around the topic of outer space to control for background knowledge. Written compositions were scored for holistic writing quality and several different vocabulary constructs: diversity, maturity, elaboration, academic words, content words, and register. The results indicated that students vary their vocabulary usage by genre. Story text had higher diversity than informative text as well as higher maturity as compared to persuasive text. Persuasive text contained higher diversity than informative text, and higher register than both of the other genres. Informative text included more content words and elaboration than the other text types as well as more maturity than persuasive text. Additionally, multiple regression and commonality analysis indicated that the vocabulary constructs related to writing quality differed by genre. For story text, vocabulary diversity was a unique predictor, while for persuasive text, content words and register were unique predictors. Finally, for informative text content words was the strongest unique predictor explaining almost all of the total variance in the five factor model, although maturity was also a unique predictor.     

Differences in written discourse in independent and integrated prototype tasks for next generation TOEFL

We assessed whether and how the discourse written for prototype integrated tasks (involving writing in response to print or audio source texts) field tested for Next Generation TOEFL^® differs from the discourse written for independent essays (i.e., the TOEFL Essay^®). We selected 216 compositions written for six tasks by 36 examinees in a field test—representing score levels 3, 4, and 5 on the TOEFL Essay—then coded the texts for lexical and syntactic complexity, grammatical accuracy, argument structure, orientations to evidence, and verbatim uses of source text. Analyses with non-parametric MANOVAs followed a three (task type: TOEFL Essay, writing in response to a reading passage, writing in response to a listening passage) by three (English proficiency level: score levels 3, 4, and 5 on the TOEFL Essay) within-subjects factorial design. The discourse produced for the integrated writing tasks differed significantly from the discourse produced in the independent essay for the variables of: lexical complexity (text length, word length, ratio of different words to total words written), syntactic complexity (number of words per T-unit, number clauses per T-unit), rhetoric (quality of propositions, claims, data, warrants, and oppositions in argument structure), and pragmatics (orientations to source evidence in respect to self or others and to phrasing the message as either declarations, paraphrases, or summaries). Across the three English proficiency levels, significant differences appeared for the variables of grammatical accuracy as well as all indicators of lexical complexity (text length, word length, ratio of different words to total words written), one indicator of syntactic complexity (words per T-unit), one rhetorical aspect (quality of claims in argument structure), and two pragmatic aspects (expression of self as voice, messages phrased as summaries).     

“短语”与“分句”

在现代英语语法中,语法学家从逻辑意义的角度将“分句”分为“限定分句”和“非限定分句”,这样“分句”的下住概念“非限定分句”的所指外延包括传统语法的“词和词组”等结构;从句法功能上讲。“短语”可由一个“词素”或几个单词构成的“词组”或“分句”来充当。因此,“短语”的所指外廷涵盖了从句法角度定义的“分句”的外延,“短语”是小于“句子”但大于或等于“分句”的语法单位,即“句子”〉“短语”≥“分句”。     

The effects of discourse genre on English language complexity in school-age deaf students

This study explored the effects of discourse genre on the complexity of English language produced by school-age deaf students. Subjects were 13 profoundly deaf students, ages 7;1 to 14;8, who had been educated using only an English-based sign system in public schools. Language samples were elicited in three conditions: a traditional spontaneous interaction, a narrative elicitation using pictures, and an interview in which the examiner asked cognitively and linguistically challenging questions. The results show that students produced the most complex English language during the interview, as measured by the use of embedded clauses, conjunctions, and modals. In contrast to previous studies, utterance length in this one did not vary as a function of sample type, likely because segmentation of the samples was based on the T-unit, not sentences. The results have implications for language sampling with school-age students, both in terms of efficacy and ecological validity.     

Who Did What to Whom? The Relationship Between Syntactic Aspects of Sentence Comprehension and Text Comprehension

This study investigated the relationship between syntactic comprehension at the sentence level and text-level comprehension. The study isolated the specific contribution of syntax by asking whether sentence comprehension efficiency of difficult syntactic constructions explained variance in text comprehension after controlling for sentence comprehension efficiency of basic constructions with similar semantic complexity. Seventy-three Grade 5 students completed assessments of text comprehension; basic and difficult written sentence comprehension efficiency; and control measures of decoding fluency, vocabulary, and verbal memory. Efficiency measures were used to assess individual differences in basic sentence comprehension with accuracy near ceiling. Difficult sentence comprehension efficiency explained 6% unique variance in text comprehension after controlling for basic sentence comprehension efficiency and other controls. Thus, the results show that individual differences in the ability to establish sentence meaning from syntactic information are related to text comprehension.     

Facilitating fourth-grade students’ written argumentation: The use of an argumentation graphic organizer

Abstract

Literacy instruction in the 21st century must bolster students’ ability to critically process text and craft well-reasoned written argumentation. The authors investigated changes in fourth-grade students’ (N?=?28; 15 girls) written argumentation as they used a researcher-developed graphic organizer (i.e., Quality Talk graphic organizer [QT_GO]). The authors also examined the extent to which students’ graphic organizer performance predicted their written argumentation and whether such prediction was sustained across genres. Both QT_GO responses and written argumentation essays were scored for quantity and quality. Multilevel modeling analyses reveal that (a) both quantity and quality of students’ written argumentation essays statistically significantly improved after students used QT_GO and (b) students’ graphic organizer performance seemed to attenuate the effect of genre on their written argumentation for both quantity and quality. Results suggest that QT_GO facilitated students’ written argumentation, making it easier for fourth-grade students to write about both narrative and expository texts.     

Analysis of lexical quality and its relation to writing quality for 4th grade,primary school students in Chile

Few studies have addressed vocabulary quality in developing writing skill in Spanish. Even less addressed it within the Chilean educational system. The specific objective of this study was to characterize, using a comprehensive set of indicators, the quality of the vocabulary produced by Chilean 4th grade students. Based on a national writing survey, a sample of 2056 texts written by 685 students was collected (narrative, persuasive, and informative texts). Current literature defines lexical quality as a composite of diverse factors that, while distinct, are interrelated. To represent the properties of the vocabulary, a set of indicators were selected: (a) lexical diversity; (b) lexical sophistication; and (c) lexical density. Using multilevel modeling (students and schools as levels 1 and 2) to explain a global writing score we found that diversity was a significant determinant for narrative and persuasive texts, density was a significant determinant for the three genres and sophistication was a significant determinant for narrative and expository text. In addition, indicators related to gender and socioeconomic conditions were only significant determinants of narrative stories. The parts of speech most often used also varied according to the purpose of each text. In all genres, words had a short extension and were very sensitive to the input presented in the stimuli. These results imply a significant challenge to this education system: how to promote the development of vocabulary in all children in order to support language learning.     

Written expression of students with and without learning disabilities: differences across the grades

This study compares the written expression of 48 students with learning disabilities (LD) and 48 normally achieving (NA) students (Grades 4, 8, and 11). Productivity, syntactic maturity, vocabulary, and mechanics were examined using writing samples obtained in response to a standard stimulus. Results indicate that, compared to their NA peers, students with learning disabilities write fewer words and sentences, write more words per sentence, produce fewer words with seven letters or more and fewer sentence fragments, and have a higher percentage of capitalization and spelling errors. No group differences were found for the number of T-units produced or the number of morphemes per T-unit. Comparison of group differences at each grade level and differences by groups across the grades reveals persistent written expression difficulties and signals a need for a careful review of current instructional practices and how they can be improved.     

A computer analysis of written language variables and a comparison of compositions written by university students with and without learning disabilities

The utility of computerized analysis of variables cited as predictors of success in written expression was examined. The analysis of compositions written by 423 university students revealed a three-factor structure on 17 variables associated with written expression. A comparison of compositions written by university students with and without learning disabilities was conducted on the three factors identified as vocabulary/fluency, syntactic maturity, and vocabulary/diversity. Students with learning disabilities differed significantly on the factors labeled vocabulary/fluency and syntactic maturity. Students with learning disabilities were not as fluent in word production and in the number of different words used in their compositions as their non-learning-disabled peers. They did, however, produce longer sentences and T-units. The findings of this study suggest that emphasis on the postsecondary level needs to focus on expanding the use of written vocabulary skills, and that the T-unit may not be the best determiner of syntactic complexity at the adult level.     

体裁分析在商务英语写作教学中的应用

写作是一项需要综合知识的语言技能,把语篇语言学知识应用于商务英语写作具有十分重要的意义。文章从语篇语言学的体裁分析理论入手,探讨体裁教学法在商务英语写作教学中的应用。结合写作过程,帮助学生了解体裁的社会功能和交际目的,认识体裁结构和认知模式及语言运用策略,从而使他们更好地理解和创造出符合特定体裁惯例的商务语篇。     

句法结构的偏离——《离骚》修辞句法初探

句法结构的偏离是《离骚》修辞句法的一种重要方式。单句的句法偏离主要包括:情态语前置、修饰语后置、修饰语悬空;复句的句法偏离包括:分句位序的改变、添加语气词以改变主从关系、句式的叠加与整合。句法偏离的修辞效果主要是:在内容上,强调和渲染了抒情主体表情达意的重心;在形式上,协调了音节声韵,满足了《离骚》节奏音组的韵律要求。     

Exploring the eye‐movement patterns as Chinese children read texts: a developmental perspective

This study was to investigate Chinese children's eye patterns while reading different text genres from a developmental perspective. Eye movements were recorded while children in the second through sixth grades read two expository texts and two narrative texts. Across passages, overall word frequency was not significantly different between the two genres. Results showed that all children had longer fixation durations for low‐frequency words. They also had longer fixation durations on content words. These results indicate that children adopted a word‐based processing strategy like skilled readers do. However, only older children's rereading times were affected by genre. Overall, eye‐movement patterns of older children reported in this study are in accordance with those of skilled Chinese readers, but younger children are more likely to be responsive to word characteristics than text level when reading a Chinese text.     

批评话语分析下的语篇体裁互文性教学探析

近年来,批评语言学界兴起用互文性研究进行语篇分析.互文性回答了话语界为何反复使用某些形式描述修辞情境,以及如何利用专业知识确定文本之间的映衬关系,批评话语则分析了互文关系所表达的文字背后的权力关系.结合体裁互文性的上述特点,分别介绍了互文性及体裁的概念,评介了批评话语分析的互文性,梳理了体裁互文性的研究现状,以更好地揭...     

Lexical and Syntactic Features of Insurance English

With the fast development of Chinese insurance market and the quickening process of globalization of the world economy,more and more English policies and wordings are coming up and the communication with the international insurance companies is much closer.Undoubtedly,to realize the insurance texts accurately and to manage the language features is very important to the insurance industry.Through the analysis of some English insurance policies and wordings,the stylistic characteristics of Insurance English are generalized at lexical and syntactic levels.At lexical level,Insurance English is mainly demonstrated with the following characteristics:the frequent use of archaic words,loan words,official words and technical words.Their characteristics at syntactic level are more complex,which are analyzed in terms of complicated long sentences,conditional adverbial clauses,restrictive attribute clauses,sentences with modal verbs and passive voice.     

Coherence,cohesion and comments on students’ academic essays

This study investigates the relationships between connectedness in discourse and the in-text comments that tutors write on postgraduate essays at a Thai university. Connectedness was divided into cohesion, propositional coherence and interactional coherence which were analysed using Hoey's lexical analysis [Hoey, M. (1991). Patterns of lexis in text. Oxford: Oxford University Press], topical structure analysis and genre analysis respectively. From these analyses, text-level features of connectedness and points in the assignments which are potentially problematic in terms of connectedness were identified, and these were compared against the tutors’ comments. The findings show very little relationship between the analyses of connectedness and the tutors’ comments. The non-results may be due to the constructs of connectedness analysed, the methods of analysis, the data, or the lack of any clear relationship between the tutors’ comments and the quality of the texts as measured by grades.