Aggressive behavior of children exposed to intimate partner violence: An examination of maternal mental health,maternal warmth and child maltreatment

Objectives

Over 4.5 million children each year are exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). Furthermore, IPV rarely occurs without other forms of violence and aggression in the home. IPV is associated with mental health and parenting problems in mothers, and children experience a wide variety of short-term social adjustment and emotional difficulties, including behavioral problems. The current study investigated the influence of IPV exposure on children's aggressive behavior, and tested if this relation was mediated by poor maternal mental health, and, in turn, by maternal warmth and child maltreatment, and moderated by children's age and gender. Study findings highlight the indirect consequences of IPV in the home on children's aggressive behavior.

Methods

Secondary data analysis using structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted with the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). Children were between the ages of 3–8 (n = 1,161). Mothers reported past year frequency of phsycial assualt by their partner, frequency of child psychological and physical abuse, maternal mental health, and children's aggressive behavior problems. Maternal warmth was measured by observation.

Results

IPV was significantly related to poor maternal mental health. Poor maternal mental health was associated with more child aggressive behavior, lower maternal warmth, and more frequent child physical and psychological abuse. Psychological abuse and low maternal warmth were directly related to more aggressive behavior while IPV exposure and physical abuse were not directly associated with aggressive behavior. Neither age nor gender moderated the modeled paths.

Conclusions

Expanding knowledge about child outcomes is especially critical for children who were involved in investigations of child maltreatment by child protective services (CPS) in order to identify relevant risk factors that can lead to interventions. The results identified maternal mental health as an important variable in mediating the relationship between IPV exposure and aggressive behavior. One implication is for multicomponent family interventions that could be tailored toward helping the mother cope with such mental health issues while also addressing deficits in children's social behavior development.     

Responses of Physically Abused and Nonabused Children to Different Forms of Interadult Anger

Responses to various forms of interadult anger were examined in 2 groups of 6–11-year-olds: 44 low-SES children with a history of physical abuse and exposure to interspousal aggression, and 44 low-SES children exposed to interspousal aggression but with no history of physical abuse or other child maltreatment. Children were presented with videotaped segments of adults in angry and friendly interactions. Angry segments varied on ( a ) the type of anger expression (nonverbal, verbal, verbal-physical), and ( b ) whether anger was resolved. In general, physically abused children reported greater fear than nonabused children in response to all forms of interadult anger. Moreover, abused children appeared particularly sensitive to whether anger between adults was resolved. Findings are discussed with regard factors that may mediate relations between exposure to family violence and the development of psychopathology in children from highly aggressive home environments.     

A life course perspective of victimization,child welfare involvement,cumulative stress and mental health for mothers on probation and parole

Women involved in the criminal justice system experience multiple forms of adversity over their lifetimes. These events may include childhood abuse, involvement in the child welfare system as children, intimate partner violence victimization during adulthood, and punitive interactions with the child welfare system as mothers. Community supervision (e.g. probation or parole) entails particular stressors, such as obtaining basic needs and employment. A majority of women under community supervision also experience depression and anxiety. The current study used the Stress Process Model to investigate associations between childhood and adulthood stressors (including childhood abuse, intimate partner violence and child welfare system involvement), recent stressful life events, and symptoms of depression and anxiety for mothers (n = 348) on probation and parole. All of the mothers had experienced some form of childhood and/or adulthood victimization. Structural equation modeling was conducted to examine how childhood abuse, adulthood victimization, and child welfare system involvement as a child and a mother were associated with recent stressful life events and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results indicated multiple direct and indirect relationships from childhood and adulthood stressors to mental health symptoms as women navigated probation and parole. For example, adverse childhood experiences were associated with elevated anxiety and depression symptoms via higher levels of recent stressful life events and adverse adulthood experiences. These findings highlight relationships between childhood abuse and adulthood factors and the mental health of mothers involved in the criminal justice system, with implications for theory, practice, and research.     

When is the personal professional in public child welfare practice? The influence of intimate partner and child abuse histories on workers in domestic violence cases

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to examine children's services workers' (CSWs') personal histories of abuse and their influence on professional responses to allegations of domestic violence. METHOD: Using an anonymous questionnaire, data were collected from CSWs in two large urban counties in Southern California who participated in a domestic violence training program (n=303). It was hypothesized that CSWs' responses to domestic violence cases would be affected by personal histories of abuse and the degree to which the CSWs identified with battered women. RESULTS: Approximately one-half of the respondents reported experiencing physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner. One-third of respondents reported physical abuse, and 22%, sexual abuse during childhood. The experience of childhood sexual abuse, especially for female CSWs, was associated with increased support for removal of children whose mother is being abused. Those CSWs with a history of partner violence who identified with battered women were less likely to approve of removing children from the battered mother than were CSWs without partner abuse history or identification with battered women. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide support for expanded training efforts that recognize the ongoing impact of victimization on CSWs' professional functioning.     

Effects of family violence on psychopathology symptoms in children previously exposed to maltreatment

Although many studies suggest that family violence is associated with child psychopathology, multiple features of the home environment might account for this association, such as poverty and caregiver psychopathology. Studies are needed examining how change in psychopathology symptoms is affected by home violence, controlling for children's own developmental symptom histories and other predictors of psychopathology. This study used latent difference score structural equation modeling to test if witnessing home violence and/or experiencing harsh physical discipline predicted changes in psychopathology symptoms among 2,925 youth aged 5-16 years previously exposed to violence. Results demonstrated that harsh physical discipline predicted child-specific changes in externalizing symptoms, whereas witnessing violence predicted child-specific changes in internalizing symptoms across time. Implications for research and policy are discussed.     

Mothers' protection of their children after discovering they have been sexually abused: an information-processing perspective

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to understand why some non-offending mothers did not protect their children consistently after they knew they were sexually abused. METHODS: The sample included 85 mothers who were involved with child protective services: 48 mothers who protected their children consistently were compared to 37 mothers who did not. RESULTS: Several variables explained 47% of the variance in the multivariate analysis. If the mother did not ask the abuser whether the abuse occurred, attributed responsibility to the abuser, believed consistently that the abuse occurred, and was not a victim of domestic violence, then she was more likely to protect her child consistently. CONCLUSIONS: Some maternal characteristics believed to affect protectiveness, such as mothers' mental health and substance abuse, were not related to whether they protected their children consistently, whereas other variables, such as domestic violence, were. Researchers need to continue to examine these and other variables simultaneously, so that practitioners can better understand which children are most likely to receive inadequate protection. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Practitioners should ask mothers whether they believe the abusers' behavior was sexual and abusive. If mothers do not perceive sexual abuse, then they will not believe abuse occurred or attribute responsibility to the abusers. Helping mothers understand the nature of sexual abuse may change their beliefs and attributions. If the abuser is the mother's partner and he has physically assaulted her, practitioners need to assess her willingness and ability, with adequate services and support, to restrict his access to her child.     

Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential and child development

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between cumulative environmental risks and early intervention, parenting attitudes, potential for child abuse and child development in substance abusing mothers. METHOD: We studied 161 substance-abusing women, from a randomized longitudinal study of a home based early intervention, who had custody of their children through 18 months. The intervention group received weekly home visits in the first 6 months and biweekly visits from 6 to 18 months. Parenting stress and child abuse potential were assessed at 6 and 18 months postpartum. Children's mental and motor development (Bayley MDI and PDI) and language development (REEL) were assessed at 6, 12, and 18 months postpartum. Ten maternal risk factors were assessed: maternal depression, domestic violence, nondomestic violence, family size, incarceration, no significant other in home, negative life events, psychiatric problems, homelessness, and severity of drug use. Level of risk was recoded into four categories (2 or less, 3, 4, and 5 or more), which had adequate cell sizes for repeated measures analysis. DATA ANALYSIS: Repeated measures analyses were run to examine how level of risk and group (intervention or control) were related to parenting stress, child abuse potential, and children's mental, motor and language development over time. RESULTS: Parenting stress and child abuse potential were higher for women with five risks or more compared with women who had four or fewer risks; children's mental, motor, and language development were not related to level of risk. Children in the intervention group had significantly higher scores on the PDI at 6 and 18 months (107.4 vs. 103.6 and 101.1 vs. 97.2) and had marginally better scores on the MDI at 6 and 12 months (107.7 vs. 104.2 and 103.6 vs. 100.1), compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: Compared to drug-abusing women with fewer than five risks, women with five or more risks found parenting more stressful and indicated greater inclination towards abusive and neglectful behavior, placing their infants at increased risk for poor parenting, abuse and neglect. Early home-based intervention in high-risk families may be beneficial to infant development.     

Psychological and physical intimate partner violence and young children’s mental health: The role of maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and parenting behaviors

Young children are at significant risk of exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV), and vulnerable to exposure-related psychopathology, yet few studies investigate the effects of exposure to IPV on children under the age of 5 years. The current study investigated the role of maternal PTSD symptoms and parenting strategies in the relationship between mothers’ IPV experiences and psychopathology in their young children, ages 3–6 years in a community-based cohort of 308 mother-child dyads at high risk for family violence. Data were collected from 2011 to 2014. IPV history and maternal PTSD symptoms were assessed by self-report questionnaires. Children’s symptoms were assessed with a developmentally-sensitive psychiatric interview administered to mothers. Punitive/restrictive parenting was independently-coded from in-depth interviews with mothers about their disciplinary practices. Hypothesized direct and indirect pathways between physical and psychological IPV, maternal PTSD, maternal parenting style, and children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms were examined with mediation models. Results indicated that neither physical nor psychological IPV experienced by mothers was directly associated with children’s symptoms. However, both types of victimization were associated with maternal PTSD symptoms. Examination of indirect pathways suggested that maternal PTSD symptoms mediated the relationship between mothers’ psychological and physical IPV experiences and children’s internalizing and externalizing symptoms and mothers’ restrictive/punitive parenting mediated the relationship between mothers’ psychological IPV and children’s externalizing symptoms. In addition, there was a path from maternal physical IPV to child externalizing symptoms through both maternal PTSD symptoms and restrictive/punitive parenting. Findings highlight the importance of supporting parents in recovering from the sequelae of their own traumatic experiences, as their ensuing mental health symptoms and parenting behaviors may have a significant impact on their children’s emotional health.     

Factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV)

ObjectiveTo evaluate the social and emotional adjustment of 219 children in families with varying levels of intimate partner violence (IPV) using a model of risk and protection. To explore factors that differentiate children with poor adjustment from those with resilience.MethodologyMothers who experienced IPV in the past year and their children ages 6–12 were interviewed. Standardized measures assessed family violence, parenting, family functioning, maternal mental health, and children's adjustment and beliefs.ResultsUsing cluster analysis, all cases with valid data on the Child Behavior Checklist, Child Depression Inventory, General Self-Worth and Social Self-Competence measures were described by four profiles of children's adjustment: Severe Adjustment Problems (24%); children who were Struggling (45%); those with Depression Only (11%); and Resilient (20%) with high competence and low adjustment problems. Multinomial logistic regression analyses showed children in the Severe Problems cluster witnessed more family violence and had mothers higher in depression and trauma symptoms than other children. Resilient and Struggling children had mothers with better parenting, more family strengths and no past violent partner. Parents of children with Severe Problems were lacking these attributes. The Depressed profile children witnessed less violence but had greater fears and worries about mother's safety.ConclusionFactors related to the child, to the mother and to the family distinguish different profiles of adjustment for children exposed to IPV who are living in the community. Resilient children have less violence exposure, fewer fears and worries, and mothers with better mental health and parenting skills, suggesting avenues for intervention with this population.Practice implicationsFindings suggest that child adjustment is largely influenced by parent functioning. Thus, services should be targeted at both the child and the parent. Clinical interventions shaped to the unique needs of the child might also be tested with this population.     

Do Mitigating Circumstances Influence Family Reactions to Physical Aggression?

The influence of mitigating circumstances on family reactions to physical aggression was investigated. 40 families, each with a 2- and a 4-year-old child, were observed during home interactions, and parents' and older children's beliefs concerning mitigation were also assessed. Although parents considered sibling physical aggression to be a serious transgression, they believed that mitigated aggression of both of their children was more excusable and they intervened less often to prohibit mitigated than nonmitigated aggression, even when the aggression was severe. Older children also believed that mitigated aggression deserved less punishment. Provocation, reciprocity, and lack of aggressive intent occurred as mitigating circumstances in the observations. When family members' reactions to these individual circumstances were examined, discrepancies arose in judgments of which specific mitigations justified aggression. These findings were discussed in terms of the clarity of a parent's message, children's appraisals of it, differing conflict roles, and society's impact.     

Toward greater specificity in identifying associations among interparental aggression, child emotional reactivity to conflict, and child problems

This study examined specific forms of emotional reactivity to conflict and temperamental emotionality as explanatory mechanisms in pathways among interparental aggression and child psychological problems. Participants of the multimethod, longitudinal study included 201 two‐year‐old children and their mothers who had experienced elevated violence in the home. Consistent with emotional security theory, autoregressive structural equation model analyses indicated that children’s fearful reactivity to conflict was the only consistent mediator in the associations among interparental aggression and their internalizing and externalizing symptoms 1 year later. Pathways remained significant across maternal and observer ratings of children’s symptoms and with the inclusion of other predictors and mediators, including children’s sad and angry forms of reactivity to conflict, temperamental emotionality, gender, and socioeconomic status.     

Mother's age and risk for physical abuse.

It is widely believed that young mothers are at greater risk of engaging in physical abuse. However, this relationship is not clearly supported by previous empirical research. This study reexamines the issue using a nationally representative sample of 1,997 mothers. All analyses controlled for family income, race, number of minor children in the home, age of abused child, mother's education, and whether mother was a single parent. Physical abuse was measured with the Conflict Tactics Scales. Using mother's age at time of birth of the abused child, the younger the mother, the greater the rate of child abuse; however, there was not a significant relationship when mother's age was measured at age at time of abuse. Large families and minority group children were also found to be at greater risk of abuse. The paper discusses implications for further research and for prevention of child abuse.     

Protective factors associated with resilient functioning in young adulthood after childhood exposure to violence

Children may be subjected to many forms of violence and a significant number will experience multiple victimizations. These children are at high risk for developing psychological and emotional difficulties that may last into adulthood. Despite the increased risk for psychopathology, a substantial percentage of young adults exhibit resilient functioning following a history of childhood violence. This study examines the role of social support, spirituality, and emotional intelligence in promoting resilience during emerging adulthood. Participants included 321 young adult American college students, age 18–24, who experienced childhood violence, including community violence, interpersonal aggression, child maltreatment, peer/sibling victimization, and/or sexual assault. Findings revealed that this sample was highly victimized, with an average of 9 violent experiences reported during childhood. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that after controlling for exposure to childhood victimization, other potentially traumatic events, and current depression and anxiety symptoms, higher resilience during emerging adulthood was associated with greater spirituality, greater emotional intelligence, and support from friends (but not from family). Findings suggest that the potency of protective factors outweighs that of adversity and psychopathology when predicting resilient functioning. By identifying variables that can enhance resilience, this study offers unique insight into how functioning may be improved by both individual and environmental factors.     

Effects of early and later family violence on children's behavior problems and depression: a longitudinal, multi-informant perspective

OBJECTIVES: To examine the effects of different forms of family violence at two developmental stages by assessing a sample of 110 Israeli children, drawn from the case files of Israeli family service agencies, studied longitudinally in both middle childhood and adolescence. METHODS: Information about the children's adjustment was obtained from parents, teachers, and the children themselves when the children averaged 10.6 and 15.9 years of age using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), Teacher Report Form (TRF), Youth Self-Report (YSR), and Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Information about the history of family violence was obtained from the mothers, fathers, children, and social workers. RESULTS: The results paint a mixed picture of the effects of family violence on children and adolescents. The relationship between concurrent behavior problems and abuse group varied by informant and study phase, although they were strongest when children were the informants. Predictions regarding the relationship between early abuse and later adjustment were only partially confirmed. Different informants did not agree about which groups of children were most adversely affected, there was little stability over time in the pattern of reported effects, and children were more likely than other informants to report levels of maladjustment that varied depending on recent or concurrent exposure to family violence. Many families changed their abuse status over time, and children who were new victims at follow-up had the most internalizing problems. Girls were found to be at more risk for internalizing and externalizing behavior problems than boys. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple informants are necessary to evaluate and assess the effects of family violence on children's behavior. Younger children may be more susceptible to the effects of family violence than older children, but problems manifest by some children may not carry over to adolescence. Changes in family and parenting practices, as well as in children's capacity to appraise and cope with family violence may help mitigate the adverse effects of family violence.     

Differential Treatment of Siblings in Two Family Contexts

We examined differential treatment of siblings (maternal involvement, discipline, children's chores) in 2 contexts: families with and without a disabled child. Further, we assessed the connections between differential treatment and both children's adjustment and sibling relationships. Subjects were 62 children, 8–14 years old, half with younger disabled siblings and half with younger nondisabled siblings. In home interviews children rated their adjustment and sibling relations, and mothers reported on discipline strategies used with each child. In 7 nightly phone interviews, mothers recalled durations of specific activities with each child and each child's chores during that day. Analyses revealed greater levels of differential treatment in families with disabled children but no context differences in the correlations between older and younger siblings' treatment. Dimensions of differential treatment were linked to children's adjustment and sibling relationships, and some of these links differed across context.     

Differential effects of psychological maltreatment on children of mothers exposed to intimate partner violence

Objective

Psychological maltreatment (PM) is the most prevalent form of child abuse, and is the core component of most of what is considered as child maltreatment. The aim of this work was to explore differential adverse outcomes of the different types of PM in the mental health and functioning of children living in homes in which they are exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV).

Method

Participants were 168 children, aged between 4 and 17, whose mothers experienced IPV. They were assessed using different measures of psychopathology and functioning: Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents-IV, Child Behavior Checklists and Child and Adolescent Functioning Assessment Scale. Furthermore, IPV was assessed with the Schedule for Assessment of Intimate Partner Violence Exposure in Children and the Index of Spouse Abuse. Statistical analyses were carried out with regression models adjusted by means of Generalized Estimating Equations.

Results

Spurning was the PM subtype with the greatest global effect on the children, as it was significantly associated with internalizing and externalizing problems. Denying emotional responsiveness specifically increased the risk of internalizing psychopathology and impairment in the emotional area. Terrorizing was not significantly associated with a greater number of negative outcomes in children's psychopathology or functioning in this population.

Implications

The results suggest the importance of taking PM types into account in order to fully understand the problems of children exposed to IPV at home, and for the design of effective treatment and prevention programs.     

Childhood abuse and current interpersonal conflict: The role of shame

ObjectiveTo examine whether shame-proneness mediates the relationship between women's histories of childhood sexual abuse and their current partner and family conflict and child maltreatment. Previous research has found that women with childhood sexual abuse histories experience heightened shame and interpersonal conflict. However, research examining the relationship of shame to interpersonal conflict is lacking.MethodParticipants were 129 mothers of children enrolled in a summer camp program for at-risk children from financially disadvantaged families. Data were collected on women's childhood abuse histories, shame in daily life, and current interpersonal conflict involving family conflict, intimate partner conflict (verbal and physical aggression), and child maltreatment.ResultsConsistent with our hypothesis, the results of hierarchical regressions and logistic regression indicated that shame significantly mediated the association between childhood sexual abuse and interpersonal conflict. Women with sexual abuse histories reported more shame in their daily lives, which in turn was associated with higher levels of conflicts with intimate partners (self-verbal aggression and partner-physical aggression) and in the family. Shame did not mediate the relationship between mothers’ histories of sexual abuse and child maltreatment.ConclusionThe role of shame in the intimate partner and family conflicts of women with sexual abuse histories has not been examined. The current findings indicate that childhood sexual abuse was related to interpersonal conflicts indirectly through the emotion of shame.Practical ImplicationsThese findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of shame in the interpersonal conflicts of women with histories of childhood sexual abuse. Healthcare professionals in medical and mental health settings frequently treat women with abuse histories who are involved in family and partner conflicts. Assessing and addressing the links of abused women's shame to interpersonal conflicts could be important in clinical interventions.     

An incidence survey of battered children in two elementary schools of Seoul

Among the 1,142 girls and boys aged 9 to 11 years, 8.2% were seriously battered, 58% were mildly battered and 33.8% were unbattered during the past year. Child battering was more serious in families in the lower social strata, with poor living conditions, in broken families such as those with stepparents or absent mothers, and where parents were unskilled workers or unemployed. Finally, child battering was closely related to all other forms of family violence.     

Typology for parents of abused children

This paper reports an effort to classify the parents of abused children with some existing and some new empirically/clinically consistent typologies, which are derived from the parents' psychopathological personality profiles. Such a classification scheme is informative and helpful for both treatment planning and permanency planning for abusive parents and abused children, whether or not the children have been separated from their parents. Several previously reported typologies for abusive parents are reviewed and then elaborated in light of the additional data and insights gained from an ongoing study of 50 abusive parents who were separated from their children due to severe child abuse. Such typological analyses based upon principal personality characteristics and dynamics promise to help in formulating both secondary and even primary child abuse prevention procedures and programs. The parent typologies which represent the more favorable prognoses, as determined by their therapist's estimate of their response to ongoing treatment, are those classified as rigid-compulsive, or experiencing identity/role crisis, or displaced abuse/violence. Parents whose child abusive behavior is a function of extremely maladaptive resolutions of major life issues fall into the hostile-aggressive, passive-dependent, and severe mental illness typologies, where the prognoses are considerably more guarded. The relatively high incidence of hostile-aggressive fathers coupled with passive-dependent mothers as abusive parents to children in a residential program for severely abused children also helps explain some of the children's psychopathology.     

The relative importance of wife abuse as a risk factor for violence against children

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relative importance of wife abuse as a risk factor for physical child abuse, physical punishment, and verbal child abuse. The study explored the importance of wife abuse relative to blocks of parent, child, and family characteristics and also relative to specific risk factors. METHOD: This study re-analyzed a sub-sample (N = 2,733) of data from the 1985 National Family Violence Survey. Hierarchical logistic regressions were conducted, using five different criterion variables measuring physical child abuse, physical punishment, and verbal abuse separately and in combination. RESULTS: Blocks of parent, child, and family characteristics were more important predictors of violence towards children than was wife abuse, though the presence of wife abuse in the home was a consistently significant specific risk factor for all forms of violence against children. Of specific risk factors, a respondent's history of having been hit as an adolescent was a larger risk factor for physical child abuse than was wife abuse. Wife abuse was an important predictor of physical punishment. Non-violent marital discord was a greater factor in predicting likelihood of verbal child abuse than was wife abuse. CONCLUSIONS: Though this study confirms the association between wife abuse and violence towards children, it cautions us not to overlook the contribution of other factors in our attempts to understand the increased risk attributed to wife abuse.