弱智学生的智力与适应行为的特征与关系分析

本研究从国内两所特殊教育学校采集了133名年龄在7岁至17岁之间的弱智学生的智力和适应行为的测量数据,经过统计处理,结果发现:随着智力落后程度的加重,弱智学生在智力测验的各个分测验上的发展水平会显著地下降;平均水平较低;学生智力落后的程度越重,其适应行为的发展水平越低;弱智学生的智力与适应行为存在极其显著的相关;弱智学生的智力和适应行为的发展不存在显著的性别差异。建议培智学校的课程设置和课程标准的制定需要针对不同程度弱智学生的认知特点,以适应学生的能力差异,这也是培智学校课程研究必然的方向。     

弱智儿童亲社会行为研究综述

亲社会行为是弱智儿童适应行为中的一个重要方面,对弱智儿童教育十分重要。弱智儿童的亲社会行为与正常儿童、自闭症儿童相比表现不同,其中唐氏综合征儿童又是弱智儿童的一个特殊类型,影响弱智儿童亲社会行为的因素主要有年龄、性别、病因、智力等。     

PASS理论在智力落后研究领域中的应用

近年来,智力落后的定义多次修订,智力落后的成因及智力落后者的缺陷究竟在何处,一直是心理学界争论的焦点问题。本文从PASS理论入手,分析了智力落后的成因和本质,揭示了智力落后研究的认知心理学新走向,为今后智力落后研究的进一步深化提供理论参考。     

The Priority of Separable Perception in Stimulus Classifications of Children with Mental Retardation

Children (mean CA = 12 years) with mental retardation and adults without mental retardation classified tetrads of stimuli that could be grouped according to identities on separate dimensions or according to overall similarity. When color, size, and line orientation were varied (Experiment 1), both groups used separate dimensions for classification. When hue, saturation, and brightness varied (Experiment 2), both groups used overall similarity for classification. Test-retest correlations showed that the predominant classifications were reliable across 1-week testing intervals. Results support Garner's distinction between separable and integral stimulus structure but do not support an integral-to-separable shift in perceptual development. Comparisons of the tetrad task used in the present study and triads used in previous work are discussed as well as implications of the present data for developmental theories of perceptual classification and processing in children with mental retardation.     

自闭症儿童心理理论能力中的情绪理解

情绪理解在个体社会交往中发挥着重要的作用,在社会交往上存在障碍的自闭症儿童的情绪理解能力理应是值得关注的研究领域。本文综述了以往对自闭症儿童心理理论能力的研究,从情绪与愿望、信念之间关系的角度对自闭症儿童基于愿望和信念的情绪理解力进行分析,并探讨了理解不同类别情绪时自闭症儿童表现不同的原因。     

Phonology,reading development,and dyslexia: A cross-linguistic perspective

In this paper, I present a theoretical overview at the cognitive level of the role of phonological awareness in reading development and developmental dyslexia across languages. My assumption is that the primary deficit in developmental dyslexia in all languages lies in representing speech sounds: a deficit in “phonological representation.” I will argue that this deficit manifests in somewhat different ways, depending on orthography. I will also argue that the phonological deficit in dyslexia is initially at the syllable and onset-rime levels of phonological awareness, with the development of “phonemic” awareness being a consequence rather than a precursor of reading. Finally, I will suggest that some of the processes underpinning language acquisition are disrupted in dyslexia, in particular, the detection of rhythm in speech.     

School psychology and medical diagnosis: The fragile X syndrome

A fragile site on the X chromosome has been implicated in developmental disabilities among both males and females who possess learning disabilities, mental retardation, attention deficit disorders, and behavior problems. For the most part, medical diagnosis has been of little value to the school psychologist or educator. The diagnosis of fragile X syndrome does possess specific educational implications, especially during the early school years. Data on the characteristics and treatment of patients that can assist the school psychologist in program planning and appropriate referral are presented. The school psychologist is in a most advantageous position to recognize children who are in need of medical consultation and chromosomal analysis. Treatment includes appropriate educational programming, trials of folic acid among prepubescent males, and medical treatment for those manifesting an attention deficit disorder. Family counseling is available for “at-risk” families and should include prenatal diagnosis.     

Does Reading Cause Later Intelligence? Accounting for Stability in Models of Change

This study reanalyzes data presented by Ritchie, Bates, and Plomin (2015) who used a cross‐lagged monozygotic twin differences design to test whether reading ability caused changes in intelligence. The authors used data from a sample of 1,890 monozygotic twin pairs tested on reading ability and intelligence at five occasions between the ages of 7 and 16, regressing twin differences in intelligence on twin differences in prior intelligence and twin differences in prior reading ability. Results from a state–trait model suggest that reported effects of reading ability on later intelligence may be artifacts of previously uncontrolled factors, both environmental in origin and stable during this developmental period, influencing both constructs throughout development. Implications for cognitive developmental theory and methods are discussed.     

Individual differences in speed of mental processing and human cognitive abilities: Toward a taxonomic model

Extensive research within the field of learning and individual differences focuses upon the relationship between general intelligence and process measures derived from elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs). This emphasis has ignored data indicating that cognitive abilities are best described by three levels (or strata). It has also been suggested that mental speed is a unitary construct, although it is more likely to have a complex structure. To address shortcomings evident in this literature, a multivariate investigation (N = 179) was conducted. Factor analysis of 25 psychometric indices gave seven factors postulated under the theory of fluid (G_f) and crystallized (G_c) intelligence. Correlations between cognitive abilities and parameters derived from 11 ECTs indicated that G_f (alone) was related to processing speed. This relationship is seemingly dependent upon experimental manipulations of task complexity. Regarding the factorial structure of mental speed, the results were unequivocal: Broad second-order factors may be derived from both ECTs and psychometric tests. These constructs are independent from abilities defined by accuracy scores and collectively define a general cognitive speed factor. Implications of these findings are discussed. It would appear that mental speed is more intricate than proposed, and that cognitive complexity (reflected in stimulus-response compatibility effects) plays a crucial role in its ontogenesis. In addition, several explanatory models linking intelligence to processing speed are untenable. It is likely that the search for a basic process of intelligence by means of mental speed frameworks (alone) is misguided.Recently, within the field of individual differences, there has been “an explosion of experimental studies into the speed of mental processes” (H.J. Eysenck 1995, p. 225). Various tasks, ranging from those paradigms assessing simple, psychomotor movements and on up through to measures of complex problem solving and psychometric test performance, have been employed (Stankov & Roberts 1997). The present study was designed to explore speed of processing constructs within a structural model of human cognitive abilities. Utilizing the evidence presented in Carroll's (1993) extensive reanalysis of the main data sets collected within the psychometric discipline this century, the structural model of cognitive abilities adopted is that known as the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (see Horn & Noll 1994; Stankov et al. 1995). In contrast, the mental speed measures selected for investigation in this study were chosen on the basis of both experimental and psychometric findings that rely on disparate accounts (e.g., information theory). Notably, mental speed constructs are not presently encapsulated within a single unifying model. Another major aim of the present study was to redress this imbalance by establishing a rapprochement between conceptual models of mental speed and human cognitive abilities.     

Longitudinal Stability of Phonological and Surface Subtypes of Developmental Dyslexia

Limited evidence supports the external validity of the distinction between developmental phonological and surface dyslexia. We previously identified children ages 8 to 13 meeting criteria for these subtypes (Peterson, Pennington, & Olson, 2013) and now report on their reading and related skills approximately 5 years later. Longitudinal stability of subtype membership was fair and appeared stronger for phonological than surface dyslexia. Phonological dyslexia was associated with a pronounced phonological awareness deficit, but subgroups otherwise had similar cognitive profiles. Subtype did not inform prognosis. Results provide modest evidence for the validity of the distinction, although not for its clinical utility.     

Contextually Influenced Patterns of Play-Developmental Age Associations for Preschoolers With and Without Mental Retardation

The purpose of this paper is to present data demonstrating the differential pattern of association among play behaviors and developmental age that emerge for children with and without mental retardation across play situations. Seventeen preschool children with mental retardation and 17 preschool children without mental retardation were matched on developmental age and sex and observed during both home-based independent play and classroom-based freeplay. Results are presented for (a) between-group comparisons of home-based and classroom-based categorical–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlational patterns, (b) between setting comparisons of home-based and classroom-based categorical–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlational patterns within each group, and (c) comparisons of the pattern of categorical play–developmental age and sequential play–developmental age correlations within both setting and group. Results suggest both group and setting variation in the play–developmental age correlational patterns. Implications for multi-contextual understanding of children’s play and the use of play in early childhood assessment are discussed.     

A caution against the use of the Slosson Intelligence Test in the diagnosis of mental retardation

The Slosson Intelligence Test, unlike most current measures of intelligence, uses a ratio method of mental age divided by chronological age to obtain an IQ score. Due to this, standard deviations are not stable across age levels and present a problem in diagnosing mental retardation. The Slosson Test Manual provides information whereby an overall test standard deviation of approximately 25 points is obtained. This is reviewed in respect to current criteria for the classification of mental retardation. It is concluded that the Slosson is inappropriate for use in the diagnosis of mental retardation.     

Mastery Motivation in Toddlers with Developmental Disabilities

Prior research on school-age children with mental retardation indicates that they are less motivated on tasks than mental-age-matched peers. In this study, mastery motivation on two tasks was compared for 1- and 2-year-old children with motor impairment ( n = 25), developmental delay ( n = 25), and typical development ( n = 25), matched for mental age. The groups did not differ significantly on any measure of mastery motivation. The relative contribution of premature birth, a history of seizure disorders, severity of cognitive delay, and maternal didactic interaction in predicting mastery motivation was examined for toddlers with developmental delay or motor impairment. Maternal didactic interaction added a significant proportion of variance above and beyond other variables in predicting several aspects of mastery motivation in toddlers with developmental disabilities.     

Developing Theories of Mind: Understanding Concepts and Relations between Mental Activities

The purpose of the study was to expand our knowledge of older children's understanding of the unique features and potential relations existing among mental activities. 8- and 10-year-olds as well as adults were asked to rate the similarity of pairs of mental activity scenarios in terms of how their mind would be used for each one. The scenarios involved primarily Prospective Memory, List Memory, Recognition Memory, Comprehension, Inference, Planning, Comparison, or Selective Attention. There was a developing tendency to organize mental activities on the degree to which memory was a component of the activity. Several distinctions were also more likely to be made with age: the distinction between recall and recognition, the distinction between the roles of internal and external cues in mediating cognitive activity, and the distinction among the various roles of attentional processes in regulating input from the sensory world. Together, these findings suggest that a constructivist theory of mind develops in later childhood.     

Learning,Empowerment and Judgement

Here is a distinction that appears very simple, looks compelling and seems to be deeply rooted in our reflections on learning. The distinction is between activities of learning that involve training and those that involve reasoning. In the former, the pupil is a passive recipient of habits of mind and action. The mechanism by which they acquire these habits is mimesis, not reasoning. In contrast, learning by reasoning involves considerable mental activity by the pupil who has to work out what to think and do. The very mechanism by which the pupil learns is her own capacity to reason, to things work out for herself.

In this paper I argue that there is no basis for this distinction. I argue that, contrary to the dominant empiricist thinking about such things, learning by reasoning is the only credible form of learning. I start with a brief characterisation of the distinction and an account of why it seems so compelling. In §2 I review the empirical evidence from developmental psychology for a rationalist account of language learning as learning by reasoning. In §§3 and 4 I provide a philosophical argument against the place of training and in favour of a rationalist model of learning by reasoning.     

Age and language skills of deaf children in relation to theory of mind development

Using four traditional false-belief tasks, I investigated deaf children's age and expressive language skills in relation to their theory of mind development. The children's parents who signed reported on their own knowledge of a mental sign vocabulary. The results indicate age of the child to be strongly related to theory of mind development. Deaf children demonstrated an ability to pass the theory of mind assessment battery between the ages of 7 and 8 years, on average. In comparison, hearing children have consistently demonstrated the ability to perform such tasks between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Therefore, the results indicate deaf children are delayed by approximately 3 years in this cognitive developmental milestone. Expressive language skills of the children and sign language skills of the parents who signed were not found to be significantly related to the children's theory of mind development.     

试论智力发展与同化、顺应的关系──皮亚杰基本理论的启示

智力、同化和顺应是皮亚杰认知发展理论的几个基本概念，也是发生认识论的基石，它们之间的内在联系对我们研究和掌握儿童身心发展规律、如何推行教育教学改革，以及当代发展心理学的理论建设等都有着深远的影响和启示。概括地说，智力就是一种适应，是同化和顺应的平衡；正是在有机体作用于环境和环境作用于有机体二者由不平衡──平衡──不平衡的循环往复中，智力由低到高不断得到丰富和发展提高的。     

Mindfulness and Intelligence: A Comparison

The theory of mindfulness (Langer, 1989a) shares with some current theories of intelligence an emphasis on the importance of cognitive flexibility. The mindfulness approach to cognitive flexibility differs from the intelligence approach in its conception of the relation between individuals and their environment. Intelligence theory employs a criterion of optimal fit between individual and environment. Mindfulness theory emphasizes that individuals may always define their relation to their environment in several ways. We examine the historical background of this difference between mindfulness and intelligence and find that (a) the concept of intelligence is embedded in a theory of correspondence that has been inherited from the 19th century; (b) current intelligence theories continue to focus on thought as adaptively corresponding to external reality; (c) despite apparent differences between unidimensional and multidimensional approaches to intelligence, common reliance on a criterion of optimal fit engenders more similarity than difference; (d) this similarity prolongs the detrimental effects of intelligence theories on self-perception, perception of others, and the educational process. Mindfulness theory rejects an evaluative standard that is external to the individual's capacity to give meaning to experience. We examine mindful enhancement of personal control and the educational process, and contrast this with the limitations of an intelligence approach.     

Aggression and moral development: integrating social information processing and moral domain models

Social information processing and moral domain theories have developed in relative isolation from each other despite their common focus on intentional harm and victimization, and mutual emphasis on social cognitive processes in explaining aggressive, morally relevant behaviors. This article presents a selective summary of these literatures with the goal of showing how they can be integrated into a single, coherent model. An essential aspect of this integration is Crick and Dodge's (1994) distinction between latent mental structures and online processing. It is argued that moral domain theory is relevant for describing underlying mental structures regarding the nature and boundaries of what is moral, whereas the social information processing model describes the online information processing that affects application of moral structures during peer interactions.     

Framing Intellectual Assessment in Terms of a Person-Process-Context Model

We suggest that the assessment of intelligence (a) ought to be tied to measuring basic cognitive components (as opposed to more heterogeneous tasks found on IQ tests and developmental scales); (b) be "contextualized"; and (c) be embedded in developmental theory, unlike current psychometric approaches. As a first step toward thinking about the contextual nature and the developmental course of intelligence, we propose that infants and young children be assessed on four basic information-procesing components that appear to be involved in higher level thinking and reasoning (concept formation, rudimentary counting, visual expectancy, and long-term memory), and that they be followed over time on variants of these measures in order to gain information about rate and quality.