Parents’ Metacognitive Knowledge: Influences on Parent–Child Interactions in a Science Museum Setting

Despite science learning in settings such as science museums being recognized as important and given increasing attention in science education circles, the investigation of parents’ and their children’s metacognition in such settings is still in its infancy. This is despite an individual’s metacognition being acknowledged as an important influence on their learning within and across contexts. This research investigated parents’ metacognitive procedural and conditional knowledge, a key element of their metacognition, related to (a) what they knew about how they and their children thought and learned, and (b) whether this metacognitive knowledge influenced their interactions with their children during their interaction with a moderately complex simulation in a science museum. Parents reported metacognitive procedural and conditional knowledge regarding their own and their children’s thinking and learning processes. Further, parents were aware that this metacognitive knowledge influenced their interactions with their children, seeing this as appropriate pedagogical action for them within the context of the particular exhibit and its task requirements at the science museum, and for the child involved. These findings have implications for exhibit and activity development within science museum settings.     

Development of metacognitive concepts about thinking in gifted and nongifted children: Recent research

This article provides an overview of recent research in our laboratories on the development of metacognition in gifted and nongifted children. Research examining the development of children's metacognitive knowledge of mental activity concepts, general declarative metacognitive knowledge, and specific metacognitive attributions are reviewed. The present studies found, as had Alexander, Carr, and Schwanenflugel (1995), patterns of gifted and nongifted metacognitive development differed depending on the type of metacognitive knowledge being examined. Specifically, recent research on knowledge of mental activity concepts showed no clear advantages for gifted children over nongifted children. Declarative metacognitive knowledge research continues to support a monotonic advantage hypothesis in which gifted children show consistent advantages over nongifted children during the early elementary school years. This advantage, however, is short-lived due to the possible presence of a ceiling effect showing a closing of the declarative metacognitive knowledge gap between gifted and nongifted children around fourth grade. Finally, recent research on specific metacognitive attributions suggests that more intelligent children develop more sophisticated attributions over time but their ability to use this information may be more dependent on other individual differences variables that may or may not be related to intelligence such as knowledge base familiarity. We conclude that it is important to differentiate the types of metacognitive knowledge being measured in studies as we investigate individual differences in the development of children's metacognitive insights about thinking.     

Socially mediated metacognition and learning to write

Writing can be viewed as a recursive process involving both cognitive and metacognitive processes. Task, environment, individual cognition and affective processes all impact on producing written text. Recent research on the development of metacognition in young children has highlighted social constructivist and socio-cultural factors. Metacognition is seen as facilitated through collaborative tasks and through talk. This study investigated the peer construction of metacognition in 5-7-year-old children engaged on collaborative writing tasks. Six year 1 and year 2 classes were involved in the project (n = 172). 25 h of video observation data, teacher and researcher reflections and structured field notes were analysed qualitatively using ATLAS ti software. The written texts produced in these sessions were analysed using a qualitative content analysis, looking specifically for evidence of the process of text construction and metacognition. The findings provide evidence of young children's ability to engage in metacognitive talk and to use metacognition intentionally in the co-construction of written texts. The relationships between children and their talk partners mediated the effect of pre-determined ability in literacy. Teachers’ direct questioning aimed at reflection on the writing process did not always support metacognitive dialogues. Drawing on recent models of metacognition and writing the paper highlights the role of social factors in developing metacognition and illustrates the ways in which young children negotiate task demands during shared writing tasks.     

Assessing metacognitive knowledge in 3–5 year olds: the development of a metacognitive knowledge interview (McKI)

Historically, early cognitive skills have been underestimated, largely as a result of the ways these competencies have been measured, which is particularly pervasive in the area of metacognition. Only recently have researchers begun to detect evidence of contextualized metacognition in 3–5 year old preschool children through the use of observational assessment tools (e.g., Whitebread et al. J Cogn Educ Psychol 3:433-455, 2007, Metacognition Learn 4:63-85, 2009). While these observational methods are a more sensitive way to capture metacognition in young children, their exclusive use may not result in a comprehensive depiction of early metacognitive competency. In the current study, we describe the development of a metacognitive knowledge interview (McKI) and what it reveals about metacognitive processes in 43 3–5 year olds (including investigating face validity). Findings indicate that the McKI (a) is a developmentally appropriate measure for 3–5 year olds, (b) is capable of eliciting articulated metacognitive knowledge when engaging in a contextualized problem-solving task, (c) shows the expected developmental trend (i.e., older children perform at a higher level and scores increased over the course of a school year), and (d) provides sufficient variation across children. Implications for future research are discussed, including the importance of using multiple measurement tools when studying early metacognitive development.     

The development of two observational tools for assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children

This paper reports on observational approaches developed within a UK study to the identification and assessment of metacognition and self-regulation in young children in the 3–5 year age range. It is argued that the development of observational tools, although containing methodological difficulties, allows us to make more valid assessments of children’s metacognitive and self-regulatory abilities in this age group. The analysis of 582 metacognitive or self-regulatory videotaped ‘events’ is described, including the development of a coding framework identifying verbal and non-verbal indicators. The construction of an observational instrument, the Children’s Independent Learning Development (CHILD 3–5) checklist, is also reported together with evidence of the reliability with which it can be used by classroom teachers and early indications of its external validity as a measure of metacognition and self-regulation in young children. Given the educational significance of children’s development of metacognitive and self-regulatory skills, it is argued that the development of such an instrument is potentially highly beneficial. The establishment of the metacognitive and self-regulatory capabilities of young children by means of the kinds of observational tools developed within this study also has clear and significant implications for models and theories of metacognition and self-regulation. The paper concludes with a discussion of these implications.

Developing strategic learners

This paper derives from an ongoing project on the teaching and learning of reading in English and Irish primary classrooms. The project is seeking to understand how reading, and indeed, learning, are conceptualised by pupils and teachers and, particularly, to understand how pedagogy supports (and hinders) the acquisition of metacognitive awareness and strategies among 9 year olds. This paper focuses on teaching in one classroom, the purpose being to develop teachers’ and researchers’ understanding of metacognition by holding up for analysis, incidents from one classroom. It is not our intention to criticise the teacher's practice with the benefit of hindsight — rather we are concerned to enhance awareness of some of the processes of learning in general and of metacognition in reading, in particular. We begin by reviewing briefly some of the literature on metacognition and by noting the implications for practice. We proceed by investigating the opportunities for metacognitive development in two reading lessons.     

An analysis of teachers’ self-reported competencies for teaching metacognition

For successful reading experiences in native and/or foreign/second language, individuals need to benefit from not only cognitive strategies but also metacognitive strategies. Although research found reading comprehension and performance increase following metacognitive trainings, such findings may not transfer into mainstream classrooms as easily for several reasons. This study, therefore, aimed to disseminate the phenomenon of teaching metacognition with an emphasis on teacher’s instrumental role during classroom learning. More specifically, it investigated language instructors’ metacognition and their self-reported competencies for teaching metacognition. It also examined whether and how self-reported competencies changed following a professional development (PD) module of teaching for metacognition. Utilising Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) and think aloud protocols for instructional planning, this study found most participants were either highly metacognitive or metacognitive individuals. It was also found that most participants were initially not knowledgeable about and/or competent in teaching metacognition. Following PD, highly metacognitive teachers developed authentic lesson plans manifesting metacognition instruction while metacognitive teachers adopted similar instructional designs presented during the PD. Besides, half of the participants appreciated teaching metacognitively following the PD. Finally, under the light of these findings, future research and policy adjustments were proposed.     

Paving a clear path in a thick forest: a conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component

The concept of metacognition refers to one’s knowledge and control of one’s own cognitive system. However, despite being widely used, this concept is confusing because of several reasons. First, sometimes it is not at all clear what is cognitive and what is metacognitive. Second, researchers often use the same term, namely, “metacognition” even when they refer to very different aspects of this complex concept. Alternatively, researchers may use different terms to indicate the same metacognitive elements. Another foggy matter is the interrelationships among the various components of metacognition discussed in the literature. This conceptual confusion regarding the concept of metacognition and its sub-components calls for in-depth theoretical and conceptual clarifications. The goal of this article is to portray a detailed example of a conceptual analysis of meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) which is one specific component of metacognition. This specific example is used to draw a general model for conceptual analyses of additional metacognitive components. The approach suggested here is to begin with a clear definition of the target sub component of metacognition, followed by a systematic examination of this sub component according to several dimensions that are relevant to metacognition in general and to that sub component in particular. The examination should include an analysis of how the details of the definition of the target sub-component refer to: (a) general theoretical metacognitive issues raised by prominent scholars; (b) definitions formulated and issues raised by other researchers who have investigated the same (or a similar) sub-component and, (c) empirical findings pertaining to that sub-component. Finally, it should be noted that since metacognition is a relational rather than a definite concept it is important to situate the context within which the conceptual analysis takes place.     

元认知及其在外语教学中的应用

本通过对元认知的概念、分类及其策略的认识以及对元认知研究发展的探讨，阐明了培养学生元认知的重要性。它带给外语教学的启示是：树立元认知教学观，对学生进行元认知训练以及建立相应的反馈机制，从而提高学生元认知水平，可以增强学生的学习能力，使之成为成功的学习。本还提出了帮助学生发展元认知的三个个性化策略。     

From the general to the situated: three decades of metacognition

This paper discusses the notion of metacognition, which is usually defined as ‘cognitions about cognitions’, or ‘thinking about one's own thinking’. In so doing, it reviews the literature on metacognition over the past three decades, listing different definitions of the term and identifying diverse origins of processes metacognitive. Aspects of the nature of metacognition are discussed, highlighting some of its important yet problematic dimensions, and the potentially positive impact metacognition can have on the learning process is addressed. The paper also relates metacognition to the broader area of general thinking skills and discusses the appropriateness of practising metacognition with primary school children. The paper concludes with a synopsis of research in the outcomes of metacognition, in general, and in science education, in particular, highlighting recent interest in blending metacognitive thinking with science subject matter. Directions for research in science education with an interest in metacognition are also proposed.     

The role of metacognition in reading‐accuracy learning and instruction

Abstract

Effective metacognition powerfully supports actioning of complex tasks. The complexity of English orthography makes mastery of reading accuracy (word identification) an extremely complex task. At‐risk readers thus are likely to benefit greatly from effective metacognition of reading accuracy. Optimal reading‐accuracy instruction involves development of conceptual, procedural and conditional knowledges, evidenced in concept and skills development, strategy usage and metacognitive actioning. It is considered likely that metacognition of reading accuracy and metacognition of cognitive processing both support reading‐accuracy mastery in children with reading disability. Student metacognition (baseline and learned) and the role of instructional scaffolding as metacognitive supports are considered integral aspects of skill mastery and generalisation. Needs for research on metacognition in reading‐accuracy development are discussed.     

Metacognition of young readers in an early intervention programme

This qualitative study was designed to investigate the metacognitive behaviour displayed by young children during their involvement in a reading intervention program, using videotapes of both intervention sessions and stimulated recall to access metacognition. The children demonstrated a wide range of metacognitive behaviour consistent with models of metacognition for older children proposed by researchers such as Flavell (1979) and Paris (Cross and Paris, 1988). Most metacognitive responses during intervention sessions involved self-regulation whereas responses during stimulated recall tended to reflect metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Results support the need to use multiple measures of metacognition with young children as well as the need for further research on the relationship between metacognition and reading achievement of children in reading intervention programmes.     

Metacognitive skills in Belgian third grade children (age 8 to 9) with and without mathematical learning disabilities

This paper presents a study on mathematical problem solving in third-grade pupils. The relationship between mathematics, metacognition and intelligence was investigated in children with (n = 191) and without mathematical learning disabilities (n = 268). A significant relationship was found between prediction, evaluation, intelligence, procedural and mathematical fact retrieval skills in children without mathematical learning disabilities. In the children with mathematical learning disabilities a relationship was found between metacognitive and procedural skills. No such relationship was found between intelligence and metacognition or between metacognition and mathematical fact retrieval skills. In addition it was investigated if children with mathematical learning disabilities had less adequate metacognitive skills than peers without learning problems. At group level significant differences were found between both groups. However on analyzing these results further, it was found that four out of five children with combined mathematical learning disabilities, half of the children with procedural disabilities and only 5% of the children with a retrieval deficiency had low metacognitive skills. Furthermore, metacognitive problems were found in one out of five children without learning disabilities. Moreover, a majority of the children with mathematical learning disabilities and inadequate metacognitive skills had problems with prediction and evaluation skills. Most third graders with low metacognitive skills only appeared to have problems predicting the level of difficulty of tasks. Inaccurate evaluations were found on a more regular basis in children with mathematical learning disabilities and inadequate metacognitive skills as opposed to the sample of children with inadequate metacognitive skills but without learning difficulties, where their occurrence was rather a one off. The implications of this study for diagnosis and treatment will be discussed later in this paper.     

Conceptualisation,Development and Validation of an Instrument for Investigating the Metacognitive Orientation of Science Classroom Learning Environments: The Metacognitive Orientation Learning Environment Scale – Science (MOLES-S)

Metacognition refers to an individual's knowledge, control and awareness of his/her learning processes. An important goal of education is to develop students as metacognitive, life-long learners. However, developing students' metacognition and evaluating whether classrooms are oriented to the development of students' metacognition are difficult and often time-consuming tasks. Further, no instruments that measure key dimensions related to classroom factors that specifically influence the development of students' metacognition have been available. This article describes the conceptualisation, design, and validation of an instrument for evaluating the metacognitive orientation of science classroom learning environments. The metacognitive orientation of a learning environment is the extent to which that environment supports the development and enhancement of students' metacognition. Social constructivism was the guiding referent informing the instrument's orientation and development. This instrument measures students' perceptions of the extent to which certain psychosocial dimensions, evident in learning environments where interventions have resulted in enhanced student metacognition, are evident in their science classrooms. Findings from the use of this instrument complement what is already known from research studies to be generally the case in relation to science classrooms' metacognitive orientation. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Teachers as metacognitive role models

This paper draws on data collected during a longitudinal collaborative project with teachers in England from schools and further education colleges. The project investigated ‘Learning to Learn’ in partnership with teacher–researchers with a focus on how metacognitive awareness can be improved by enquiring into creative combinations of pedagogy, environment and learners’ dispositions. The paper is an attempt to make clear the theoretical underpinnings of our belief that the project teachers were enacting something different, something metacognitive. We present a pragmatic model of metacognition development based on ideas collaboratively produced across the project. The five cycles of development are exemplified from the pedagogic and the professional learning perspective with quotes, vignettes and case study excerpts. We show a catalytic relationship between the pedagogies used by the teachers to develop their students’ metacognition and the teachers’ own learning and metacognitive knowledge and skilfulness.     

Metacognitive development and moving away

It is now largely accepted that social and cultural factors have a significant impact on cognitive development in children. Piaget acknowledged the impact of social factors and peer interaction on cognitive development. However, there has been relatively little work on the impact of social and cultural factors on the development of metacognition in first‐year university students. Using the Learning and study strategies inventory (LASSI) as a measure of metacognition, this study samples first‐year undergraduates in Hong Kong (N = 1815) and identifies significant differences in metacognitive abilities between students living in their home environment and those who have moved away from their family and, in some cases, culture, to pursue undergraduate education.     

Learning from learning logs: A case study of metacognition in the primary school classroom

Structured thinking activities (STAs) are pedagogical tools used to support metacognition in classrooms. Despite their popularity, little is known about how pupils use STAs as platforms to think about and manage their own thinking (i.e. as metacognitive tools). This case study investigated pupils’ use of STAs in relation to metacognition throughout a school year. We focus on two 8-year-old pupils, Amy and Laura, as they completed two specific STAs through weekly class meets and termly achievement logs. Data were triangulated through participant observation, qualitative interviews and analysis of written texts. We found clear differences between Laura's and Amy's written STAs, however observation and interviews revealed that engagement with STAs was similar beyond that suggested by the written evidence alone. Whereas Amy used easily spelt ‘stock’ responses, Laura used ‘bare minimum’ responses to meet teacher expectations. As such, neither Amy nor Laura used STAs as metacognitive tools, however in negotiating STAs, both exhibited strategic regulatory skills indicative of metacognition. Whilst our findings highlight that pupils may still be developing explicit metacognitive knowledge necessary to take full advantage of STAs, we highlight the clear value of persistent approaches to using STAs as tools to support developing metacognition, particularly in association with teacher–pupil interactions.     

Reconsidering Personal Epistemology as Metacognition: A Multifaceted Approach to the Analysis of Epistemic Thinking

One of the central unresolved conceptual issues that concerns researchers of personal epistemology is the characterization of the intersection between personal epistemology and metacognition. The contested and diverse nature of both constructs makes untangling their connections a complex yet vital task. The purpose of this article is to advance the discussion regarding this intersection by offering a theoretical approach that may serve as a basis for analyzing epistemic thinking and aligning it with current views of metacognition. Based on a synthesis of theoretical and empirical studies, we argue that epistemic thinking is a multifaceted construct with both cognitive and metacognitive aspects. Furthermore, we propose that epistemic metacognition includes several aspects such as metacognitive skills; metacognitive knowledge about persons, strategies and tasks; and metacognitive experiences. The theoretical, methodological, and instructional implications of this approach are explored.     

The Role of Self-Regulatory and Metacognitive Competence in the Motor Performance Difficulties of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Theoretical and Empirical Review

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) experience difficulty coping with everyday demands due to difficulties in performing motor tasks. Recently, a cognitive learning paradigm has been applied to studying the nature of the problems experienced by children with DCD, which assumes that these children have fewer cognitive and metacognitive skills with which to acquire motor skills. However, despite the emergence of such cognitive models, individual differences in children’s use of self-regulatory and metacognitive skill during motor learning have received little research attention. The aim of this review article was to examine the roots of this emerging field of research, locate it within the larger body of metacognitive and self-regulation literature, and examine some of the preliminary work that has been conducted on the role of self-regulation and metacognition in motor learning and in the motor performance difficulties of children with DCD.     

Changing the metacognitive orientation of a classroom environment to enhance students’ metacognition regarding chemistry learning

Concerns persist regarding science classroom learning environments and the lack of development of students’ metacognition and reasoning processes within such environments. Means of shaping learning environments so that students are encouraged to develop their metacognition are required in order to enhance students’ reasoning and learning. Interventions should account for the nature of the subject material to be learned. This study employed a mixed-methods approach to investigate the efforts of university researchers and a classroom teacher to change the learning environment of a year 11 chemistry classroom. Changes in participants’ perceptions of their learning environment and corresponding changes in their metacognition and associated reasoning are documented. The teacher’s use of language that explicitly targeted students’ metacognitive knowledge altered their metacognition. Students reported changes in their learning environment and an increased awareness of how they considered chemistry might be learned. Classroom environment instruments can act as reliable indicators for monitoring changes in psychosocial dimensions of classroom environments that can be directly related to students’ metacognition.