Recognition and Realisation Rules in Acquiring School Science ‐‐ the contribution of pedagogy and social background of students

This study investigates the difficulties students encounter in problem solving in the area of sciences. Contrary to usual approaches of a fundamental psychological basis, the research takes into account the sociological processes of learning and transmission in both the family and the school. The aim of the study is to see the extent to which the students have recognition and realisation rules in the micro‐context of problem solving (specific coding orientation) and to find out the reasons which may underlie their difficulties. Thus the data obtained are related to social class, race and gender and also to pedagogic practices (differing in power and control relations) and school science achievement in high level cognitive competencies. They are also related to children's cognitive level. The results show a strong relation between social class and specific coding orientation to problem solving. The relation is also strong for race and weaker for gender. Specific coding orientation is also strongly related to cognitive development and science achievement. These relations differ for the variables according to realisation and recognition rules and their various indices. The study shows the positive influence of pedagogic practice, which constitutes a crucial finding to pedagogic change.     

Educational inequality in Colombia: family background,school quality and student achievement in Cartagena

This study examines the effects of family socio‐economic disadvantage and differences in school resources on student achievement in the city of Cartagena, Colombia. Using data from the ICFES and C‐600 national databases, we conduct a multilevel analysis to determine the unique contribution of school‐level factors above and beyond family background. The results from the hierarchical linear models show that while family socio‐economic background significantly affects student achievement, school composition and school resources explain as much as half of the effects of family background. More specifically, the achievement gap in public schools is explained in large part by differential resource allocation and concentration of poor students in public schools, which in turn lowers student achievement.     

Understanding mathematics achievement: an analysis of the effects of student and family factors

Educators are increasingly recognising the importance of improving students’ mathematics achievement. Much of the current research focuses on the impact of instructional variables on mathematics achievement. The goal of this study was to examine the influence of less researched variables – family and student factors. Participants were 747 economically disadvantaged elementary students grades K-8 in Ohio. Predictor variables included: (a) 13 factors from a parent survey on both child and family circumstances and (b) reading achievement, measured by a norm-referenced achievement test. Outcome variables included three mathematics scales from the same achievement test. Regression analyses examined the impact of the predictors on the outcomes. Reading achievement significantly predicted mathematics achievement for all three outcomes. Parent pessimism and parent-perceived school/cognitive competence of children also emerged as significant predictors for two of the three mathematics outcomes. Implications for research, policy and practice will be shared.     

The relationship between homework time and achievement is not universal: evidence from multilevel analyses in 40 countries

Although homework is generally believed to be an important supplement to in-school learning, research has not yet fully clarified the relationship between homework and achievement. This cross-cultural study analyzed the relationship between homework time and mathematics achievement drawing on data from 231,759 students in 9,791 schools and 40 countries who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2003. Multilevel analyses found a positive association between school-average homework time and mathematics achievement in almost all countries, but the size of the association decreased considerably once socioeconomic background and school track were controlled. At the student level, no clear-cut relationship was established between homework time and achievement across the 40 countries. The results highlight the need to use multilevel analyses and to control for confounding variables in homework research.     

Reasoning strategies of students in solving chemistry problems as a function of developmental level,functional M‐capacity and disembedding ability

Achievement in science depends among other factors on hypothetico‐deductive reasoning ability, that is, developmental level of the students. Recent research indicates that the developmental level of students should be studied along with individual difference variables, such as Pascual‐Leone's M‐capacity (information processing) and Witkin's Cognitive Style (disembedding ability). The purpose of this study is to investigate reasoning strategies of students in solving chemistry problems as a function of developmental level, functional M‐capacity and disembedding ability. A sample of 109 freshman students were administered tests of formal operational reasoning, functional M‐capacity, disembedding ability and chemistry problems (limiting reagent, mole, gas laws). Results obtained show that students who scored higher on cognitive predictor variables not only have a better chance of solving chemistry problems, but also demonstrated greater understanding and used reasoning strategies indicative of explicit problem‐solving procedures based on the hypothetico‐deductive method, manipulation of essential information and sensitivity to misleading information. It was also observed that students who score higher on cognitive predictor variables tend to anticipate important aspects of the problem situation by constructing general figurative and operative models, leading to a greater understanding. Students scoring low on cognitive predictor variables tended to circumvent cognitively more demanding strategies and adopt others that helped them to overcome the constraints of formal reasoning, information processing and disembedding ability.     

Influence of family and socio‐demographic variables on students with low academic achievement

In this study we compare the distribution of parental educational styles and the scores reported both by parents and students for various family characteristics (acceptance, control, involvement, and expectations) and socio‐demographic factors (socio‐economic status, family structure, number of children, and order of birth of the children) in a group of adolescents with normal achievement (n?=?105) and in a group which present low achievement (n?=?205). Likewise, we examine which variables best predict academic achievement in the two groups and of adolescents. The results indicate differences in the distribution of parental styles in the two groups for the majority of the variables analysed. We also observed a differential pattern in the prediction of academic success. In the group of adolescents with normal academic achievement, socio‐demographic variables better predict achievement; for students with low achievement, family variables play a more important role in predicting achievement.     

Motivation and ability: which students use online learning and what influence does it have on their achievement?

There has been much recent research examining online learning in universities, but two questions seem to have been largely overlooked in this context: (1) Which students voluntarily utilise web‐based learning; and (2) Does this use influence their academic achievement? The current study aimed to determine whether the approaches to studying, ability, age, and gender of 110 undergraduates in the second year of a psychology degree predicted the extent to which they utilised online learning using Web Course Tools (WebCT) in support of a core Biological Psychology unit. Data were obtained from WebCT's student tracking system, Entwistle and Ramsden's 18‐item Approaches to Studying Inventory (1983) and academic records. Multiple linear regressions and discriminant function analysis were used to examine whether individual differences predicted WebCT use, while analysis of covariance determined whether web use influenced academic achievement. The number of hits, length of access, and use of the bulletin board was predicted by age, with older students using WebCT more. These factors were also influenced by ability and achievement orientation. The degree of participation in self‐assessment was not predicted by student variables, but, of those that repeated an online quiz, improvement was more likely in those with lower achievement orientation. Only bulletin board use influenced achievement, with those posting messages outperforming those not using, or passively using bulletin boards. However, because individual differences will determine the extent to which students utilise this facility, it is suggested that future research should focus on developing online learning environments that incorporate activities with both a beneficial influence on learning and appeal to a wide student population.     

Cognitive ability and personality variables as predictors of school grades and test scores in adolescents

The predictive power of cognitive ability and self-control strength for self-reported grades and an achievement test were studied. It was expected that the variables use of time structure, academic procrastination, and motivational interference during learning further aid in predicting students’ achievement because they are operative in situations of school-leisure conflict. A sample of 697 eighth-graders was tested twice within the interval of a single school year (about eight months). Cognitive ability and self-control explained substantial variance of grade changes. Procrastination displayed a further portion of the variance. Personality variables were better predictors of grades, while cognitive ability showed higher variance with the achievement test. Variables tapping aspects of self-control strength have been interpreted as key determinants of learning outcomes. The findings suggest that it might be useful to identify students who are at risk, allowing these students to train their ability to shield studying from leisure distractions.     

THE ROLE OF SCHOOL LEVEL PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN OVERCOMING CUMULATIVE RISK FOR BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES IN CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND DISABILITIES

The study investigated whether school‐level protective factors could moderate the effects cumulative risk has upon behavior difficulties in children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). The sample comprised 4,288 children identified with SEND: 2,660 pupils within 248 primary schools, and 1,628 pupils within 57 secondary schools. Risk factors associated with increases in behavior difficulties over an 18‐month period were summed to a cumulative risk score. Various school‐level factors were added to multilevel models, with interaction terms computed between cumulative risk and these variables to assess their potential protective effects. The primary school model revealed a significant interaction between cumulative risk and school academic achievement in predicting behavior difficulties. Higher levels of achievement in primary schools help reduce behavior difficulties for children most at risk. The secondary school model evidenced a significant interaction between cumulative risk and school percentage of students eligible for free school meals (FSM). Lower proportions within a school of children eligible for FSM were associated with reductions in behavior difficulties for children at high levels of risk. Interventions aimed at improving school‐level academic achievement and targeting high‐risk students attending schools with large proportions of children eligible for FSM would be beneficial.     

The influence of students’ cognitive and motivational variables in respect of cognitive conflict and conceptual change

In this study, the relationships among students’ cognitive/motivational variables, cognitive conflict, and conceptual change were investigated. Subjects were 159 seventh graders in Korea. Tests regarding logical thinking ability, field dependence/independence (FDI), meaningful learning approach, failure tolerance, mastery goal orientation, and self‐efficacy were administered to examine students’ cognitive/motivational characteristics. A preconception test and a test of responses to discrepant event were also conducted to examine the degree of students’ cognitive conflict induced by a discrepant event. Computer‐assisted instruction, designed to change an undifferentiated weight‐density concept into a scientific density concept, was then provided to students as a conceptual change intervention. A conception test was administered as a post‐test. The results indicated that FDI was the only statistically significant variable correlated with the degree of cognitive conflict. A stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that logical thinking ability, FDI, and failure tolerance were statistically significant predictors of the conception test scores. Educational implications are discussed.     

The Role of Mediators in the Development of Longitudinal Mathematics Achievement Associations

Despite research demonstrating a strong association between early and later mathematics achievement, few studies have investigated mediators of this association. Using longitudinal data (n = 1,362), this study tested the extent to which mathematics self‐concepts, school placement, executive functioning, and proficiency in fractions and division account for the association between mathematics achievement in first grade and at age 15. As hypothesized, a strong longitudinal association between first‐grade and adolescent mathematics achievement was present (β = .36) even after controlling for a host of background characteristics, including cognitive skills and reading ability. The mediators accounted for 39% of this association, with mathematics self‐concept, gifted and talented placement, and knowledge of fractions and division serving as significant mediators.     

Effects of background and classroom characteristics on the science achievement of 10-year-old students

Effects of characteristics of science classrooms on the science achievement of students were examined in the context of a simple model. The model incorporated prior attributes of the students in terms of home background, sex, and verbal and quantitative ability. The model was estimated by means of partial least squares multivariate procedures using data for 10-year-old Queensland students from the Second International Science Study. The results demonstrated the dominant influence of home background and verbal/mathematical ability. Female students tended to have lower scores after allowing for the influence of the other variables in the model. Students who stated that there were more student initiated activities in their science lessons tended to have lower achievement. Specializations: science and mathematics education, research methodology, data analysis.     

The influence of parental and peer attachment on college students' academic achievement

This study examined relations among attachment to parents and peers, cognitive ability, psychosocial functioning variables, and academic achievement in a multiethnic sample of college students (n = 357). A small subgroup (14.8%) of students reported low levels of attachment to both parents and peers. Significant positive correlations were documented between parent and peer attachment and several indices of psychosocial competence. Results from hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that indices of cognitive ability were significant predictors of college students' grade point averages, while broader measures of functioning in early adulthood (attachment, intellectual ability, self‐esteem) were significant predictors of scholastic competence. Results suggest that perceived attachment to both parents and peers is a component of wider patterns of social competence and adjustment that may function as protective or compensatory factors during key transitions in young adulthood, such as participation in college, and with its attendant demands for academic achievement. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A structural model of algebra achievement: computational fluency and spatial visualisation as mediators of the effect of working memory on algebra achievement

The goal of this study was to develop and evaluate a structural model of the relations among cognitive abilities and arithmetic skills and college students’ algebra achievement. The model of algebra achievement was compared to a model of performance on the Scholastic Assessment in Mathematics (SAT‐M) to determine whether the pattern of relations is similar for different types of higher level maths achievement. Structural equation modelling was used to test the effects of working memory, 3D spatial ability, and computational fluency on both types of higher order maths achievement. Computational fluency had the strongest effect on algebra achievement, with 3D spatial ability and working memory showing moderate effects. In contrast, 3D spatial ability had a stronger effect on SAT‐M scores than did computational fluency. Computational fluency and 3D spatial ability completely mediated the effect of working memory for both algebra and SAT‐M achievement.     

Characteristics of male and female students who experienced success or failure in their first college science course

The purpose of this study was to identify correlates of success for male and female students in their first collegiate science course. The factors that were examined included the personality variables of persistence, future orientation, and the tendency toward reckless and rash behavior, as well as cognitive attributions for success and failure. In addition, two scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory that focused on the direction of a student's academic orientation were examined for their relationship to science achievement. Level of success x gender ANOV As showed no interactions for cognitive attributions or for the direction of academic orientation. Interactions for persistence, reckless and rash behavior, and future orientation indicated that these factors were more important to the science success of women than to that of men.     

Children’s cognitive ability and their academic achievement: the mediation effects of parental expectations

It is generally accepted that cognitive ability predicts academic achievement, and that parental involvement and expectations form part of the constellation of factors that predict their children??s academic achievement, particularly for families within the Chinese-heritage Cultures. Although a number of interactions between these parental factors have been proposed, the mediation effects of parental expectations on their children??s cognitive ability in predicting academic achievement are yet to be established. Data from 780 students from one primary school in Hong Kong and their parents were used to generate structural equation models to test the hypothesis that parental affective factors, as indicated by parental home and school involvement, parental beliefs of their children??s ability and parental expectations of their children??s academic scores, mediate the effects of student IQ score in predicting school achievement in English, Chinese and Mathematics. The results support the hypothesis that parents help their children to actualize their cognitive ability by directly communicating their academic expectations to their children.     

A spreadsheet-based visualized Mindtool for improving students’ learning performance in identifying relationships between numerical variables

In this study, a spreadsheet-based visualized Mindtool was developed for improving students’ learning performance when finding relationships between numerical variables by engaging them in reasoning and decision-making activities. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, an experiment was conducted on the “phenomena of climate on earth” unit of an elementary school geography course. The experimental results showed that the spreadsheet-based visualized Mindtool significantly benefited the students in terms of improving their learning achievement and promoting their learning attitudes and satisfaction. Moreover, the cognitive load of the students was significantly decreased, indicating the effectiveness of this approach in helping students comprehend, learn content and organize their knowledge. To further investigate the learning behaviors of high-achievement and low-achievement students in using the spreadsheet-based Mindtool, a learning pattern analysis was conducted by coding the students’ behaviors recorded on video.     

Determinants of Grade 8 Achievement in Jordan: a multilevel analysis approach

Although a large body of research exists on students achievement and school effectiveness, recent studies have pointed to major methodological drawbacks associated with research in this field. In the present study, an attempt was made to overcome some of these drawbacks by utilising a hierarchical linear modelling strategy. Applying this procedure on four data sets of 2918 Grade 8 students, 2918 parents, 344 teachers and 152 school principals simultaneously, the findings revealed that the variation in achievement within schools is more than five times as high as the variation between schools (84% compared to 16%). That is, school‐level variables are far less important in affecting academic achievement than student‐level variables. Students background variables included in the model (gender, father education, mother education, home possessions and number of siblings) accounted for 12% of the total variability in students’ achievement.     

Student engagement and mathematics achievement: Unraveling main and interactive effects

The present study explored the relationships between student engagement and mathematics achievement for 295,416 15‐year‐old students from 11,767 secondary schools in 34 countries who participated in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012. Affective engagement was measured by students’ mathematics interest (InterestMath) and perceived usefulness of schooling (PerceptionSch), behavioral engagement by behaviors facilitating mathematics learning (BehaviorMath) and participation in mathematics learning activities (ActivitiesMath), and cognitive engagement by openness (Openness) and perseverance (Perseverance) in problem‐solving. Results showed that students who were more engaged had higher levels of academic achievement, with cognitive engagement having the strongest association with achievement. Results also showed that students who were highly engaged in two domains had higher achievement levels than peers who were engaged in only one domain in six pairwise comparisons (InterestMath‐BehaviorMath, InterestMath‐Openness, InterestMath‐Perseverance, PerceptionSch‐BehaviorMath, PerceptionSch‐Openness, PerceptionSch‐Perseverance). These results highlighted the importance of a whole‐school based approach in enhancing student achievement.     

Modelling Student Progress in Studies of Educational Effectiveness∗

It is argued that a crucial requirement in studies of educational effectiveness is the modelling of change or growth in student learning. To illustrate one approach to achieving this end, results are presented from multivariate multilevel analyses of three‐waves of data for three Grade level cohorts of students from a longitudinal study designed to explain variation in elementary school students' progress in literacy achievement. The article provides estimates of the influence of prior achievement and social background factors including ‘critical events’, on students’ progress, examines the extent to which progress can be accounted for by the grouping effects of students within classes and schools over successive years, and provides estimates of the effects of explanatory variables at the student‐and class/teacher‐levels.