The development of recognition memory for the left-right orientation of pictures

3 studies examined the development of recognition memory for the left-right orientation of pictures of common objects. In study 1, 5-year-olds, 9-year-olds, and college students were shown 20 pictures of objects. Subsequently, they were tested on their ability to discriminate between 10 of these pictures and their left-right mirror images and between the other 10 pictures and completely new ones. There were large developmental differences in memory for orientation, although all age groups could discriminate accurately between familiar pictures and completely new ones. In studies 2a and 2b, training concerning the relevance of orientation improved second and fourth graders' long-term memory for this characteristic, but training effects were minimal for kindergartners. However, even kindergarten children showed accurate short-term memory for orientation on the task used for training. In contrast to study 2, study 3 produced accurate long-term memory for orientation in kindergarten children by using a verbal training procedure. Results are discussed in terms of the range of memory factors involved in children's mirror-image confusions and in terms of general implications for the development of recognition memory.     

Development of detection and recognition of orientation of geometric and real figures.

Black and white kindergarten and second-grade children were tested for accuracy of detection and recognition of orientation and location changes in pictures of real-world and geometric figures. No differences were found in accuracy of recognition between the 2 kinds of pictures, but patterns of verbalization differed on specific transformations. Although differences in accuracy were found between kindergarten and second grade on an initial recognition task, practice on a matching-to-sample task eliminated differences on a second recognition task. Few ethnic differences were found on accuracy of recognition, but significant differences were found in amount of verbal output on specific transformations. For both groups, mention of orientation changes was markedly reduced when location changes were present.     

The influence of reading unit size on the development of Stroop interference in early word decoding

The purpose of the experiments was to determine the automatic use of large or small word reading units in young readers in the absence of word decoding strategies. Picture-word Stroop interference was examined from four types of conflicting labels: (a) words containing both highly predictable grapheme–phoneme correspondence (GPC) units and highly consistent rime units (henceforth, Hi-GPC + Hi-Rime); (b) words with highly predictable GPC units and less consistent rime units (Hi-GPC + Lo-Rime); (c) words with low predictability GPC units and highly consistent rime units (Low GPC + High Rime); (d) nonwords that contained both highly predictable GPC and highly consistent rime units. Naming time for pictures containing these labels was compared against that for pictures with random letter strings or no labels. In Experiment 1, Stroop interference was examined in first, second, and third grade children to determine whether there was developmental change in the presence of rime or GPC interference. In Experiment 2, Stroop interference was examined as a function of relative reading skill in first grade children. In Experiment 3, Stroop interference in adults was compared to the use of rime or GPC pronunciation strategies for nonword reading. In all experiments, Stroop interference in picture naming was longer for pictures with highly predictable GPC unit labels than less predictable GPC unit labels. However, in Experiment 3, even though adults showed interference from predictable GPC units in the Stroop task, they always preferred rime pronunciation for ambiguous nonwords in the nonword reading task. It is argued that the current experiments provide evidence for a flexible units model. The results of this study were presented at the Cognitive Development Society meeting, November 2001, Virginia Beach, VA, and the American Educational Research Association meeting, April 2004, San Diego, California.     

Long-term effects of child abuse and neglect on emotion processing in adulthood

To determine whether child maltreatment has a long-term impact on emotion processing abilities in adulthood and whether IQ, psychopathology, or psychopathy mediate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and emotion processing in adulthood. Using a prospective cohort design, children (ages 0–11) with documented cases of abuse and neglect during 1967–1971 were matched with non-maltreated children and followed up into adulthood. Potential mediators (IQ, Post-Traumatic Stress [PTSD], Generalized Anxiety [GAD], Dysthymia, and Major Depressive [MDD] Disorders, and psychopathy) were assessed in young adulthood with standardized assessment techniques. In middle adulthood (M_age = 47), the International Affective Picture System was used to measure emotion processing. Structural equation modeling was used to test mediation models. Individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment were less accurate in emotion processing overall and in processing positive and neutral pictures than matched controls. Childhood physical abuse predicted less accuracy in neutral pictures and childhood sexual abuse and neglect predicted less accuracy in recognizing positive pictures. MDD, GAD, and IQ predicted overall picture recognition accuracy. However, of the mediators examined, only IQ acted to mediate the relationship between child maltreatment and emotion processing deficits. Although research has focused on emotion processing in maltreated children, these new findings show an impact child abuse and neglect on emotion processing in middle adulthood. Research and interventions aimed at improving emotional processing deficiencies in abused and neglected children should consider the role of IQ.     

The development of first graders' reading skill as a function of pre-school motivational orientation and phonemic awareness

This study examined the development of reading skill during the first school year. The predictors were pre-school motivational orientations, coping tendencies, knowledge of the alphabet and phonemic awareness. From 151 pre-school children (6 years of age) rated by pre-school teachers on motivational orientations, 32 non-readers were allocated according to their dominating motivational disposition to one of the following extreme groups: task orientation, social dependence, ego-defensive, and multiple non-task-oriented. Each group included 8 children. The subjects' phonemic awareness and knowledge of the alphabet were assessed. Coping strategies were observed in pre-school during a play-like construction task comprising three induced pressure episodes. At the end of the first grade the children were assessed on word reading skill and again on motivational orientation. Both group comparisons and idiographic analyses were made. Results indicated that pre-school phonemic awareness was associated with first grade word reading skill. Rated task orientation in pre-school enhanced significantly the prediction of fluent word reading. Task-oriented children showed significantly better word reading skill than ego-defensive or multiple non-task-oriented children. Ego-defensive and multiple non-task-oriented subjects showed significantly less task oriented, and more ego-defensive, coping behaviour under pressure than task-oriented subjects. This finding suggests greater vulnerability of ego-defensive and multiple non-task-oriented children which may contribute to diverging reading careers. Idiographic analyses indicated parallel developmental changes in reading skill, motivational orientations and coping patterns confirming the role of motivation in the formation of an individual's reading career.     

Preschoolers’ Visual Attention during Electronic Storybook Reading as Related to Different Types of Textual Supports

Preschoolers’ (n?=?32) attention to print and pictures was documented during an electronic storybook reading session. Children (M?=?51.06 months; SD?=?7.34 months) looked at a 12-page book that contained three types of pages, each of which was presented four times over the course of the book: (1) silent presentation of print, (2) print that was read aloud, and (3) print that was both read aloud and highlighted. Our research objectives were to analyze whether the way in which print was presented related to the ways in which children attended to print and pictures during the reading session. Gaze fixation duration to print and pictures was assessed using a Tobii X2-60 portable eye tracking unit, which captured corneal reflection data for each child. Children’s total fixation duration to print was greatest when print was read aloud and highlighted as compared to when it was presented silently or read aloud. In addition, children looked at print more when it was displayed silently than when the computer read the story to children, although this difference was much smaller in magnitude. Children attended to pictures more than print across pages, but this difference was most notable when the story was read aloud. Results demonstrate the potential utility of nonverbal print referencing strategies during book reading.     

Mother-child conversations about pictures and objects: referring to categories and individuals

The distinction between individuals (e.g., Rin-Tin-Tin) and categories (e.g., dogs) is fundamental in human thought. Two studies examined factors that influence when 2- to 3-year-old children and adults focus on individuals versus categories. Mother-child dyads were presented with pictures and toys (e.g., a picture of a boat or a toy boat). Conversations were coded for references to generic categories ("Dogs are furry"), ostensive labels ("This is a dog"), or specific individuals ("Lassie"). Overall, pictures generated more talk about categories; objects generated more talk about individuals. However, when objects could not be manipulated, speakers expressed relatively more category references. These results suggest that representations (in the form of pictures or objects-on-display) encourage young children and parents alike to think about categories.     

A developmental study of automatic word processing in a picture classification task.

Second-grade children, third-grade children, and adults judged whether pictures were members of a positive or negative memory set while trying to ignore irrelevant words printed inside the pictures. There were 3 types of picture-word relation. In 1 condition, the words corresponded to the pictures. In a second condition, the pictures and words were incongruent, but the words corresponded to the correct response (e.g., with dog and horse the positive set pictures, a picture of a dog containing the word "horse"). In the third condition, the pictures and words were incongruent and corresponded to conflicting responses. For all 3 subject groups, the type of picture-word relation reliably affected response latencies, indicating that subjects automatically processed the irrelevant printed words.     

Parent–child conversations about letters and pictures

Learning about letters, and how they differ from pictures, is one important aspect of a young child??s print awareness. To test the hypothesis that parent speech provides children with information about these differences, we studied parent?Cchild conversations in CHILDES (MacWhinney, 2000). We found that parents talk to their young children about letters, differentiating them from pictures, by 1?C2?years of age and that some of these conversational patterns change across the preschool years in ways that emphasize important features of letters, such as their shape. We also found that children talk about letters and pictures in distinct ways, suggesting an implicit understanding of some of the differences between letters and pictures at an early age. Some differences in parent?Cchild conversations about letters were found as a function of socioeconomic status: Lower SES families appeared to focus more on alphabetic order than higher SES families. The general letter knowledge expressed in these conversations suggests that everyday interactions are an important component of the home literacy environment and that they differ, in some respects, as a function of child age and family background.     

Enriching children's recall of picture-dictionary definitions with interrogation and elaborated pictures

Preschool-age children were presented four picture-dictionary definitions to leam. Definitions were accompanied either by pictures detailing all the attributes of the definition referent (elaborated pictures) or simpler, less complete illustrations (nonelaborated pictures). After one presentation, the definition was repeated either as a series of questions to which the child responded, or as simple declarative restatements. Total recall of information stated in the definitions was improved by the elaborated pictures. The presence of elaborated pictures also resulted in greater recall congruent with the defined concept, but not present in the definition as stated (i.e., inferences). Questioning produced a higher percentage of paraphrased recall (i.e., nonverbatim recall of information stated in the definitions). These latter two findings are consistent with the interpretation that both elaborated pictures and questions lead preschoolers to process more extensively information provided in definitions.     

Material-appropriate processing: A contextualist approach to reading and studying strategies

Processing strategies or text adjuncts that are mnemonically effective with some types of text produce no benefits with other text types. A framework for understanding these seemingly inconsistent mnemonic effects across different types of text is presented. The framework suggests that two types of conceptual elaboration are important for free recall: individual-item processing and relational processing. The mnemonic effectiveness of text adjuncts or other manipulations to increase elaboration of a text will depend on: (1) the type of conceptual elaboration induced by the particular text adjunct or study strategy; (2) the type of elaboration invited by the text itself; and (3) the overlap between the processing induced by the text adjunct or study strategy and the processing invited by the text itself. Significant enhancement in recall is anticipated only to the extent that the text adjunct or study strategy encourages processing that is complementary to the processing invited by the material itself. The viability of this framework is demonstrated in a review of the pertinent literature on the mnemonic effects of encoding difficulty. Then, research stimulated by the framework that uses educationally relevant study and text adjuncts (embedded questions, outlining, adjunct pictures) is reviewed. Predictions generated by the framework are consistently upheld.     

Improving Reading to Improve Math

Reading provides information across the curriculum. Thus, to the extent that fundamental (i.e., generalizable) reading comprehension strategies can be taught, the benefits should be found in multiple domains. To test this claim, children in the third and fourth grades read by simulating text content using the two-part, embodied Moved by Reading intervention. While reading six initial texts, children literally manipulated pictures on a computer screen to simulate sentence content; next, for additional texts the children imagined the manipulation of the pictures. These additional texts were in the form of mathematical story problems. Compared to a control condition, children using Moved by Reading solved more problems correctly, and this improvement is mainly attributed to a 35% reduction in the use of irrelevant numerical information in solution attempts. Thus, Moved by Reading teaches a fundamental strategy that encourages the sense-making that can aid mathematical story problem solution.     

Pictorial support and specific instructions as design variables for children’s concept and rule learning

How do young children most readily learn new concepts and rules? The authors contribute a new study to the literature on this important subject. They tested two design strategies on 69 elementary school children to investigate (a) the effect of using three types of pictorial supports to focus student attention on the important features of a concept or rule as described in accompanying written material and (b) the importance of specific pretraining instruction on how to use the pictorial to notice and label relevant rules and concepts. Posttests showed it works better to supply pictures than to have students draw their own, and both these methods work better than having students form mental images of the material studied. All three types of pictorials required about the same student time-on-task. The authors also found that specific pretraining instruction in how to use the pictorials is very important. The learning task involved two arithmetical rules—intersection and empty set.     

The Effect of Ability,Colour and Form on Children's Perceptions of Biological Pictures

abstract This study investigates the extraction of information by 13 and 14 year old children (n= 120) from four different pictures displaying ecological topics. The pictures were reproduced as coloured or monochrome and photographs or line drawings. The children perceived significantly more from photographs than from line drawings and from coloured than from monochrome pictures, even after the exclusion of colour‐specific items. The results are discussed with reference to the role of colour in enhancing figure‐ground quality and the effect of colour as a distractor. Evidence is also presented which suggests that the higher scores made with photographs are related to the general ability of the child. This result is discussed in terms of the possible motivational and cognitive effects of complex pictures.     

The incidence and nature of letter orientation errors in reading disability

Letter orientation confusions (reversals) in the reading and writing of 10-year-old children with and without reading disability were investigated to determine whether reading disability is associated with letter orientation errors and to identify the nature of the errors. In a variety of tasks measuring letter orientation confusions in reception (reversal detection and recognition) and production (controlled writing, copying), individuals with reading disability made more orientation confusions than average readers. Orientation errors were more frequent for reversible than for nonreversible items in tasks involving long-term memory processes. The results did not appear to be related to group differences in attention or speed of motor responding. Possible sources of orientation confusions, including deficient magnocellular system processing, mislabeling, and overreliance on visual strategies, are discussed.     

Preschool children's exposure to story grammar elements during parent–child book reading

Twenty‐three preschool‐age children, 3;6 (years; months) to 4;1, were videotaped separately with their mothers and fathers while each mother and father read a different unfamiliar storybook to them. The text from the unfamiliar storybooks was parsed and coded into story grammar elements and all parental extratextual utterances were transcribed and coded for (1) their relationship to the story grammar elements found within the storybook, and (2) the natural strategies parents used to direct their children's attention to these elements. Children's overall exposure to story grammar elements during book reading was also explored for its relationship to their language abilities. Results indicated that parents focused significantly more on the resolution, attempt, and consequence compared to the initiating event and plan, and most frequently used the text and pictures as strategies for recruiting their children's attention to the story grammar elements within the book. In addition, the frequency of parental utterances related to story grammar elements was negatively correlated with children's language abilities. This study did not examine the complexity or depth of parental utterances related to story grammar elements. These findings provide initial evidence that children may derive their understanding of story grammar at least in part through their parents' extratextual discussions during parent–child book reading.     

Children''s Understanding of Action Lines and the Static Representation of Speed of Locomotion

Children's understanding of the static representation of speed of locomotion was explored in 2 experiments. In Experiment 1, 20 7-year-olds and 20 9-year-olds drew pictures of 2 people walking and running at different speeds. Children then made judgments about pairs of unambiguous drawings of a person walking or running, as did a sample of 20 adults. The drawings varied according to whether action lines, background lines, or no lines were present. Children were asked to say which figure appeared to be moving faster. In Experiment 2, 20 7-year-olds, 20 9-year-olds, and 21 adults sorted ambiguous drawings of a person walking and running at different speeds. The pictures again contained action lines, background lines, or no lines. In the drawing task, children more frequently used page position and biomechanical information than action lines to represent fast and slow walking and running. In the judgment task, 7- and 9-year-olds offered equivalent judgments of action lines and background lines, whereas adults distinguished between these pictorial devices. In the sorting task, all subjects distinguished between action lines and background lines and judged that pictures containing action lines looked faster than pictures containing background lines and pictures without lines. Taken together, the results indicate that subjects' judgments were influenced by the form of locomotion and degree of ambiguity in the depicted events they saw. The findings are consistent with the view that different categories of pictorial devices exist, but the effectiveness of each device is contingent upon the perceiver's experience with it and the context in which it appears.     

When Do Pictures Help Learning from Expository Text? Multimedia and Modality Effects in Primary Schools

Adding pictures to a text is very common in today’s education and might be especially beneficial for elementary school children, whose abilities to read and understand pure text have not yet been fully developed. Our study examined whether adding pictures supports learning of a biology text in fourth grade and whether the text modality (spoken or written) plays a role. Results indicate that overall, pictures enhanced learning but that the text should be spoken rather than written. These results are in line with instructional design principles derived from common multimedia learning theories. In addition, for elementary school children, it might be advisable to read texts out to the children. Reading by themselves and looking at pictures might overload children’s cognitive capacities and especially their visual channel. In this case, text and pictures would not be integrated into one coherent mental model, and effective learning would not take place.     

Visual orientation and self-perceptions of children in an external-cue-relevant or cue-irrelevant task situation.

On the basis of visual orientation on a block design task, 180 kindergarten through fifth-grade children were assigned to 3 categories of task approaches: (a) inner directed or task oriented (TO), (b) information seeking (IS), and (c) approval seeking or cue dependent (CD). The performance and self-perceptions of the children were then examined as they worked on a concept-identification task in which an external cue was either relevant or irrelevant. The results showed that performance of the children in the 3 categories on the task was differentially affected by the manipulated cue conditions, though not consistently across grade levels. The relationship between task-approach categories and self-perceptions also differed over grade levels.