Toward a Current,Comprehensive, Integrative,and Flexible Model of Motivation for Instructional Design

Workplace motivation historically has been an HR function, with ID as a training function. This division produces a split between motivation and training, leaving them isolated from one another. Intervention design needs to include motivation throughout its phases, to maximize motivating opportunities for performance improvement. The current models included in instructional design texts and resources are important, but tend to lack some characteristics that would make them more useful and productive for designers. The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical and conceptual framework for the devel‐opment of a new model of motivation for intervention design that is current, comprehensive, integrative, and flex‐ible. To that end, we (1) review the key points of the call for such a model; (2) present a framework for such a model; (3) offer a conceptual prototype for a model to meet designer's needs and include perspectives from experts in instructional design and performance technology, including how it fills out an integrative theoretical base of motivation for the field; and (4) present future development implications for the field.     

Theoretical Frameworks of Performance‐Based Models

The purpose of this article is to highlight theories that support the functions of performance‐based design models and to discuss the implications of integrating divergent models into the system‐oriented human performance technology (HPT) and performance improvement (PI) disciplines. HPT, PI, and instructional systems design (ISD) share a systems framework, along with the influence of common theories such as performance theory, learning theory, adult learning, cognitive psychology, and behavioral psychology (Foshay, Villachica, & Stepich, 2014). This article focuses on the role of theory as a tool in the practitioner's toolbox and as a connection point when working with teams and organizations that have different theoretical orientations. Performance‐based ISD models are discussed, including Robinson and Robinson's (1989) Training for Impact, Brethower and Smalley's (1998) Performance‐Based Instruction, and Bradford and Boler's (2015) Horizon Model. Allen and Sites's (2012) successive approximation model (SAM) retains elements of ADDIE as a process, but the model is iterative rather than systematic in design.     

Conceptual change: a discussion of theoretical, methodological and practical challenges for science education

Conceptual change views of teaching and learning processes in science, and also in various other content domains, have played a significant role in research on teaching and learning as well as in instructional design since the late 1970s. An important issue is whether conceptual change can provide a powerful framework for improving instructional practice in such a way that students’ levels of scientific literacy are significantly increased. In this article, the first section provides an overview on the development of conceptual change perspectives. In sections two to six, we examine the different ways that researchers have facilitated the collection of data and empirically evaluated learning as conceptual change based on these different theoretical perspectives. In section seven, we identify key issues of conceptual change with a deliberate emphasis on their contribution to improve instructional practice and conclude the article by posing challenges at theoretical, methodological and practical levels. We contend that conceptual change perspectives still have the potential to significantly improve instructional practice. However, it becomes also evident that actual practice is far from what conceptual change perspectives propose and that change of this practice will be a rather difficult and long-lasting process.

The current status of instructional design theories in relation to today's authoring systems*

It is of course very difficult to accurately project important characteristics of the future state of any rapidly evolving field, and the field of authoring systems for computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) is no exception. However, strong trends in evolving CAI systems of today would seem to indicate some important characteristics of the software systems underlying tomorrow's automated instructional systems. Under the premise that form follows function, this paper will explore the functional impetus of some of the most important trends extant in terms of their roots in a powerful, emerging technology of instructional design. This technology promises to complement the advancing hardware and software technologies, by supplying that sine qua non of successful instructional materials. It is inevitable that systems of the future will make (and indeed are making) significant accommodations of this vital technology as it matures, and therefore some important characteristics of tomorrow's systems can be predicated upon what is already known of this technology of instructional design.     

Social studies and the language or technology

Conclusion Social studies teachers have numerous resources for using technology in their classrooms. Even though using these resources may enhance instructional goals, most teachers do not take advantage of them. Developing a vocabulary in the language of technology will increase the likelihood that social studies teachers will use existing technologies. This article is only a start. Teachers’ technology related vocabularies should be constantly expanding. A great source for expanding one’s vocabulary of technology related words is What is.com (http://whatis.com). This site provides accessible definitions of hundreds of technology-related words, phrases and acronyms.     

A conceptual framework for comparing instructional design models

Instructional design (ID) professionals typically employ models that guide their practice. However, it is unclear how a specific model is selected for an instructional situation. Andrews and Goodson (1980) provided a valuable procedure for comparing instructional design models, but because of the proliferation of variations in instructional design applications during the past decade, the introduction of instructional design into new learning contexts and the emergence of alternative approaches to instructional design, there has emerged a need for a new framework which assesses the potential success of any instructional design model. A framework is presented here which is intended to provide a conceptual tool for determining appropriate instructional design applications.     

The status of training and performance research in the AECT journals

“HPT has had a significant impact on the instructional design and technology field.” Cynthia Conn is working on her Ph.D. in educational technology at the University of Northern Colorado Jacqueline Gitonga is currently working on her Ph.D. in human resource education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research interests are in training and development, instructional design and human performance technology.     

The civic‐minded instructional designers framework: An alternative approach to contemporary instructional designers' education in higher education

This paper argues that an emphasis on training‐for‐the‐job approaches has distracted designers from thinking about the meaning of their profession and the grand purpose of practising instructional design. Drawing from literature in the fields of sociology and educational technology, this paper synthesises discourses on civic professionalism in instructional design and technology, and proposes a conceptual framework that highlights the roles and qualities of a civic‐minded instructional designer. It is claimed that a critical discussion on civic professionalism in the field of educational technology can offer an alternative perspective on educating instructional designers, and have practical implications on instructional design and technology curricula in higher education.     

Flipping an Algebra Classroom: Analyzing,Modeling, and Solving Systems of Linear Equations

The present study investigated whether flipping an algebra classroom led to a stronger focus on conceptual understanding and improved learning of systems of linear equations for 54 seventh- and eighth-grade students using teacher journal data and district-mandated unit exam items. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to compare scores on three factors, analyze, model, and solve systems of linear equations. We found comparable statistically significant learning gains in both treatment groups. We found that the focus on conceptual understanding was similar in the flipped and control classrooms, and the learning gains were statistically significant and similar in both groups. Explicit attention to the substance of the at-home videos and in-class activities is needed to use the flipped classroom model to successfully shift the instructional focus from procedural to conceptual understanding.     

国际教学设计领域在关注什么——《教学设计中课程、规划和进程的国际观》深度解读

针对教学研究领域的三个主题：教学设计、课程设计、信息通信技术与媒体,国际教学设计研究领域的学者们主要关注如下研究热点：认知和学习心理学研究成果为教学设计模型提供了新的理论基础和创新途径,课程开发和信息通信技术需要进一步整合到教学设计模型中;课程开发及其对教学设计模型的影响;信息通信技术对教学设计和课程开发的影响,从更加整合和全面的视角来看待学习、教学、课程和技术之间的关系。《教学设计中课程、规划和进程的国际观》从以上三个方面展示了国际观点。当前教学设计研究和实践逐步形成以下发展趋势：一是教学设计研究越来越呈现出跨学科特点;二是运用技术创建有效学习环境成为教学设计研究的重要领域;三是欧美学者在教学设计研究领域既共享众多核心观点,又在研究角度、内容上各有不同,使得整体研究成果深度交融。     

Experimentation in biology lessons: guided discovery through incremental scaffolds

Experimentation is a complex problem-solving process. In biology lessons, experiments involve creative thinking and open discovery; however, they still require some degree of instructional guidance. The right balance between discovery learning and instructional guidance depends substantially on students’ prior knowledge. Students with low prior knowledge in particular might have difficulties with conducting and understanding experiments. Incremental scaffolds might be a valuable tool to meditate between pure discovery and strong guidance while simultaneously taking learners’ individual knowledge and skills into account. In the current study, we examined the effects of incremental scaffolds (IncSc), no scaffolds (NoSc), and worked-out examples (WoEx) on students’ knowledge acquisition while doing inquiry-based experimentation with a special focus on students with low prior knowledge. In a pre-posttest design, 193 students (M_age?=?13.02?±?0.81 years) participated in a four-hour teaching unit on animals’ overwintering strategies. In the pre- and posttest, we assessed the students’ conceptual and procedural knowledge. Our results partially confirmed our hypotheses: Regarding the conceptual and procedural knowledge of all students, incremental scaffolds showed no additional benefit regarding students’ knowledge in the posttest when compared to working with no scaffolds or worked-out examples. For the students with low prior knowledge, working with incremental scaffolds led to higher conceptual and procedural knowledge after the teaching unit than working with worked-out examples.     

A critical-realist response to the postmodern agenda in instructional design and technology: a way forward

Although providing an invigorating foundation for instructional design and technology theory and research, the postmodern agenda would benefit from clearer articulation and further refinement of ontological, epistemological, and methodological positions. Consequently, we reveal possible weaknesses in the radically constructivist-inspired position and, in the spirit of scholarly dialogue, counter with a critical-realist perspective that presents a potentially more innovative and defensible approach to the discovery of scientific knowledge about teaching and learning infused with technology. Without doubt, we concur with postmodernists that issues of agency, identity, race, gender and ethnicity must be addressed and given a central position in instructional design and technology research and practice. Under the critical-realist designator, case study, ethnographic, arts-based, and phenomenological methodologies are appropriate and can co-exist. Our point of distinction is that as a scientific venture, instructional design and technology as a discipline must be more public and transparent in warrants, claims and discourse for proposed change to take place. We conclude by indicating future lines of inquiry inspired by the critical-realist perspective, detailing topics in technology integration and digital games.     

E‐Learning Ain't Performance: Reviving HPT in an Era of Agile and Lean

Not all instructional design models are fully integrated into the HPT practice. Some of these processes such as the successive approximation model (SAM) and the lot like Agile methods approach (LLAMA) are the outgrowth of Agile processes for instructional design. The major design processes are often assumed to be competitive; that is, one model is better than the other. However, most Agile instructional design processes assume that the most ubiquitous performance solution is e‐learning, hence the direct integration of Agile processes. Therefore, instead of thinking about design models, we think about instructional methods and solutions over human performance technology (HPT). These methods are all equal until one understands the conditions or the context of the instructional or performance problem. We recommend designers reverse engineer the Agile instructional systems design process by using a rapid performance analysis method that quickly pinpoints and confirms the performance problem(s).     

Epistemology,situated cognition,and mental models: 'Like a bridge over troubled water'

Over the past two decades important educational implications have beendrawn mainly from two movements of epistemology: Constructivismand situated cognition. Aside from a meta-theoretical use ofconstructivism, the concept 'situated cognition' refers to a conceptionof situational context bound to a historically and socially determinedsituational logic. Focusing on educational processes, situated cognitionis considered to be a central construct for instruction, as is theclosely related concept of the construction of mental models.There are various kinds of the construction and change of mental modelsin a situational context: self-guided inductive construction is oneexample; another is the processing of a conceptual model providedto the learner. An emerging question is how the preconception changesand if the effects of such a model transition are stable. An exploratorystudy will be sketched which investigates the significance of aconceptual model provided at the beginning of the learning process;it has been hypothesized, that such a conceptual model significantlyimpacts the stability (i.e. the successful reconstruction) of mentalmodels built in the course of learning. Also considerableintraindividual differences and changes between two points of assessingthe learners' causal explanations were found. Similarities of theindividuals' reconstructions could be explained with regard tosimilarities of the structures of the learning situations and therelated instructional intervention. In general, the results of thisexploratory study support the assumption that mental models areconstructed in dependence on the demands of learning situations.     

Rethinking classroom-oriented instructional development models to mediate instructional planning in technology-enhanced learning environments

Although classroom-oriented instructional development (ID) models have the potential to help teachers think and plan for effective instruction with technology, research studies have shown that they are not widely employed. Many of these models have not factored in the complexities that teachers faced when planning for instruction in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELE). They also fail to facilitate teachers’ critical re-examination of their existing practices and exploration of other practices to take up the affordances of technologies for effective instruction. Adopting an activity theoretical perspective towards instructional planning in the TELE, this paper examines two existing ID models: Reiser and Dick [1996. Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. Boston: Allen and Bacon] and Morrison, Ross, and Kemp [2004. Designing effective instruction (4th ed.) New York: Wiley]. It then constructs a classroom-oriented expansive and reflective ID model that: (1) facilitates the teacher's re-examination of their existing practices to identify contradictions in his/her instructional planning process in the TELE; (2) treats the ID elements in a nonlinear and non-sequential way; (3) accounts for the decisions made by other participants in the TELE, especially students and other teachers; (4) supports teachers’ formulation of solutions to the contradictions and transforms practices to take up the affordances of technology in the TELE; and (5) recognizes the need for teachers to move beyond the current activity by reflecting upon it so as to enable the emergence of new norms of practice.