Feedback Analysis of the Movement Mechanisms of Handwriting

To extend the feedback analysis of legibility in handwriting, a coordinate force transducer has been devised that makes possible the separate sensing of the right-left and near-far directions of writing motions and the converting of these movements to their electrical analogs. This method of transducing handwriting motions made possible systematic measurement of the effects of feedback displacement and delay of the visual feedback of writing movements and of analyzing the types of variation in legibility related to variable feedback factors. Results showed that differential directional defects and general disturbances in legibility and timing of writing movements occurred in relation to both visual feedback displacement and delay of writing motions. The findings give added support to the view that writing is not a form of discrete stimulus-response behavior or stimulus tracking, but consists of self-generated forms of response comparable to steering, in which accuracy, legibility, and learning are directly determined by feedback time factors and directional specificity of particular right-left and near-far coordinates of movement that dynamically control and project visual input in the writing act.     

Handwriting isolated cursive letters in young children: Effect of the visual trace deletion

This study assesses the handwriting of isolated cursive letters in five-year-old children and the effect of a modification in visual feedback. Sixty-four children copied twelve cursive letters with an inking pen and a non-inking pen. Reducing visual feedback decreased the mean number of penlifts, and increased mean velocity and fluency. However, it increased the size of the letters (trajectory length) and reduced their quality. We suggest that processing visual feedback of the emerging visual trace may interrupt the fluency of the movement, while writing without seeing the trace may place greater emphasis on motor control and the use of somatosensory feedback. This study supplies reflection about sensory feedback and the moment when it should be provided in handwriting instruction. Practitioners should be aware that variation in the writing environment (surface, tools …) modifies sensory feedback and affects handwriting learning (gesture and outcome) in different manner.     

The Effect of the Kind of Test Announcement on Students Preparation

Abstract

Subjects were given intrasensory matching and intersensory transfer tasks of perceptions made in the aural and visual sensory modes at the first, third, and fifth grades. Subjects matched, as same or different, melodic phrases within the aural sensory mode (AA). In addition, they judged whether the shape of a stimulus (either contour-line graphs or melodic phrases) that was perceived initially in either of the sensory modes was the same or different from the stimulus paired in the opposite mode (AV or VA). The aural to aural intrasensory task (AA) was found to be significantly easier than either intersensory task at all grade levels. No significant differences were found between the AV and VA intersensory tasks at any grade level. The difference in mean-score gains for the AV task was found to be significant across grades three to five.     

The effect of modality on long-term recognition memory

Two experiments examined the effects of visual and auditory modes of input on long-term memory. In Experiment 1, 40 subjects learned a 40-word list presented in a blocked or random fashion. In the blocked conditions learners were presented half the nouns in one modality followed by the remaining 20 words in the other modality (See-Hear or Hear-See). Subjects in random conditions also received half the list in each modality, but the presentation was random (Mixed or Mixed Reverse). Following a 6-min delay, subjects completed an 80-item visual recognition test. Analysis of these data showed significantly (p < .05) greater recognition of words presented visually than those presented auditorily. Experiment 2 was designed to test the hypothesis that learners may visualize a “literal copy” of the stimulus item by controlling for the extent to which the recognition measure offered a visual cue. Two groups of 40 subjects were examined using the same procedure used in Experiment 1, with the exception that one group received a visual recognition test while the other was tested auditorily. These data showed that the lack of a visual cue hindered the recognition of visually presented words, while it had little effect on stimuli presented auditorily. The results of these experiments were interpreted as support for the hypothesis that physical characteristics of a stimulus may persist in memory well beyond immediate memory intervals. Subjects were seen to make modality-specific decisions by testing long-term memory for the presence or absence of a visual memory trace.     

Midsession reversals with pigeons: visual versus spatial discriminations and the intertrial interval

Discrimination reversal learning has been used as a measure of species flexibility in dealing with changes in reinforcement contingency. In the simultaneous-discrimination, midsession-reversal task, one stimulus (S1) is correct for the first half of the session, and the other stimulus (S2) is correct for the second half. After training, pigeons show a curious pattern of choices: They begin to respond to S2 well before the reversal point (i.e., they make anticipatory errors), and they continue to respond to S1 well after the reversal (i.e., they make perseverative errors). That is, pigeons appear to be using the passage of time or the number of trials into the session as a cue to reverse, and are less sensitive to the feedback at the point of reversal. To determine whether the nature of the discrimination or a failure of memory for the stimulus chosen on the preceding trial contributed to the pigeons’ less-than-optimal performance, we manipulated the nature of the discrimination (spatial or visual) and the duration of the intertrial interval (5.0 or 1.5 s), in order to determine the conditions under which pigeons would show efficient reversal learning. The major finding was that only when the discrimination was spatial and the intertrial interval was short did the pigeons perform optimally.     

鸣禽神经系统可塑性研究进展

揭示学习与记忆的神经机制已成为认知科学领域的一个重要研究方向.鸣禽的鸣啭表现出一种复杂的学习过程.鸣禽学习鸣啭的过程可以分为两个阶段.在感觉学习期,幼鸟必须听到成鸟的鸣啭,并形成鸣啭模板记忆;在感觉运动学习期,鸣禽通过听觉反馈与模板匹配逐步建立稳定的鸣啭.LTP(long term potentiation)是一种研究学习记忆突触基础的主要模型,其代表突触功能的可塑性.本文对近年来鸣禽神经系统可塑性及习鸣研究进展进行综述.     

Memory Profile of Children with Nonverbal Learning Disability

The aim of this study was to compare visual and verbal memory in children with nonverbal learning disability (NLD) using the Children's Memory Scale and to identify the profile of strengths and weaknesses in visual memory abilities. Performance was significantly lower on measures of visual than verbal memory, indicating that children with NLD have deficits in visual memory despite adequate verbal memory. A unique pattern of performance emerged for the visual but not the verbal subtests. Performance on the Faces Immediate subtest was well below average, although other measures of visual memory were within the average range. Hence, it appears that children with NLD have a specific deficit on immediate memory for faces. This facial memory deficit may be linked to a deficit in right hemisphere functioning, which has already been implicated in facial processing and may also be linked with other disorders (e.g., autism spectrum disorder) in which similar facial processing deficits have been documented. More research is needed to further understand the visual memory profile of children with NLD and to inform instruction and remediation.     

Examining whether touch sensory feedback is necessary for science learning through experimentation: A literature review of two different lines of research across K-16

The focus of this paper is on the contribution that active touch sensory feedback offered through physical or virtual (with haptic feedback) manipulatives, makes to students' learning through science experimentation. Both theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence are presented. The theoretical perspectives were drawn from two types of theories, namely embodied cognition and additional (touch) sensory channel, which were associated with the use of physical and virtual manipulatives for learning purposes. The empirical evidence was drawn from two different lines of research. The first line of research involves studies that have focused on comparing physical manipulatives and virtual manipulatives (without the provision of haptic feedback), whereas the second involves studies that have focused on comparing virtual manipulatives with and without the provision of touch sensory (haptic) feedback. Both theories supply strong arguments for providing touch sensory feedback during science experimentation, whereas the empirical research outcomes show that providing touch sensory feedback is not always a prerequisite for learning science through experimentation. Those instances for which touch sensory feedback does appear to be a necessity for learning science through experimentation are identified. However, science education studies are limited within the aforementioned research areas. In addition, their findings are inconsistent, especially for the research focused on comparing virtual manipulatives with and without haptic feedback. The latter makes it difficult to arrive at a solid framework that depicts when and how touch sensory feedback should be offered to students for learning science through experimentation. The article concludes with suggestions for future research that would contribute towards development of such a framework.     

The role of feedback from phonology to orthography in orthographic learning: an extension of item‐based accounts

Skilled readers were trained to recognise either the oral (n=44) or visual form (n=40) of a set of 32 novel words (oral and visual instantiation, respectively). Training involved learning the ‘meanings’ for the instantiated words and was followed by a visual lexical decision task in which the instantiated words were mixed with real English words and untrained pseudowords, and the instantiated words were to be considered as words. The phonology‐to‐orthography consistency (feedback consistency) of the instantiated words was manipulated to investigate the role of feedback from phonology in orthographic learning. Masked consonant and vowel‐preserving form primes were used in the lexical decision task as probes of orthographic learning. Feedback‐consistent instantiated words were recognised significantly faster in lexical decision than feedback‐inconsistent instantiated words, and facilitation was significantly greater from consonant‐preserving than vowel‐preserving primes for orally but not visually instantiated words. The results support the hypothesis that orthographic representations based on a consonant frame can be generated from the speech signal before encountering the printed forms, and that feedback from phonology is involved in the early stages of orthographic learning.     

Eye tracking as a tool to study and enhance multimedia learning

This special issue comprises a set of six papers, in which studies are presented that use eye tracking to analyse multimedia learning processes in detail. Most of the papers focus on the effects on visual attention of animations with different design features such as spoken vs. written text, different kinds of cues, or different presentation speeds. Two contributions concern effects of learner characteristics (prior knowledge) on visual attention when learning with video and complex graphics. In addition, in some papers eye tracking is not only used as a process measure in itself, but also as input for verbal reports (i.e., cued retrospective reporting). In the two commentaries, the contributions are discussed from a multimedia learning perspective and an eye tracking perspective, by prominent researchers in those fields. Together, the contributions to this issue give an overview of the various possibilities eye tracking opens up for research on multimedia learning and instruction.     

Preferred Modality of Stimulus Input and Memory for CVC Trigrams

Abstract

Three groups of fifteen children about 8 years of age were selected such that one group displayed a distinct preference for auditory over visual stimuli, one group displayed a distinct preference for visual over auditory stimuli, and one group displayed no preference. The Ss then learned lists of CVC trigrams presented through preferred and nonpreferred modalities. Results indicated that recall was best when the stimuli during learning were presented through the preferred sensory modality and worst when presented through the nonpreferred modality. Children without a sensory preference scored between the other two extremes, learning equally well under either modality. It was concluded that modality preference can be an important variable in learning and that providing congruity between a learner’s preference and mode of instruction should be investigated.     

The effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation and recovery on spatial reference memory of young rats

It is known that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep plays a crucial role in learning and memory. Previous studies have demonstrated that postlearning REM sleep deprivation (RSD) impairs memory consolidation. Most of these studies observed only the effects of RSD on learning and memory. In the present study, we not only investigated the impacts of 48-h RSD on the spatial reference memory of young rats in a Morris water maze, but also specifically examined whether an REM rebound for 24–48 h after 48-h RSD affected the maintenance of spatial reference memory. RSD was induced by the modified multiple platform method, and spatial reference memory was tested in a Morris water maze. The results demonstrated that, compared with the control groups, posttraining RSD for 48 h produced a significant impairment in the retention of acquired spatial reference memory, and the impairment continuously existed after 24 and 48 h of release from sleep deprivation, which indicates that REM sleep plays a critical role in reference memory maintenance and consolidation. Moreover, postlearning RSD may lead to a long-term impairment in the consolidation of newly acquired memories.     

Computer-based feedback matters when relevant prior knowledge is not activated

BackgroundHow feedback is given may influence its utility.AimWe examined the effect of activated prior knowledge on learning from feedback by manipulating whether knowledge of a foundational concept was activated before solving fraction division problems.Sample and methodsUndergraduates (N = 171) were randomly assigned in a 3 (feedback timing: delayed, immediate, or no feedback) x 2 (knowledge activation: relevant or not) between-subjects design.ResultsIf irrelevant knowledge was activated, immediate feedback enhanced learning as compared to no feedback during the learning task, whereas if relevant knowledge was activated, then there was no impact of immediate feedback. On the posttest, any feedback (immediate or delayed) resulted in greater performance, but feedback timing did not matter. Thus, activating prior knowledge moderates the effect of feedback on learning.ConclusionWhen researchers or practitioners are investigating or giving feedback, they must also consider individual differences of the learner such as the prior knowledge they bring to the task.     

Sign tracking in domesticated quail with one trial a day: Generality across CS and US parameters

When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is located some distance from the unconditioned stimulus (US), pairings of the CS and US can yield either conditioned approach to the CS (sign tracking) or conditioned approach to the US (goal tracking). However, goal tracking is the more common outcome, and, because of that, goal tracking has come to serve as a “standard” measure of associative learning in several laboratories. In contrast, in previous studies of sexual conditioning with domesticated quail, only sign tracking was observed. In the present study, quail continued to show sign tracking rather than goal tracking whether or not the US was highly localized (Experiment 1), whether food or a sexual US was used (Experiment 2), whether the CS was mobile or immobile (Experiment 3), and whether the CS was 91 or 233 cm from the US compartment (Experiment 4). The present findings encourage caution in the routine use of goal tracking as a measure of learning. The possible mechanisms of goal tracking are discussed in terms of occasion setting and behavior systems theory.     

Learning Styles of ESL Students in Community Colleges

This study investigated the learning styles of adult English as a second language (ESL) students in Northwest Arkansas. Learning style differences by age, gender, and country of origin were explored. A total of 69 northwest Arkansas adult ESL students attending 7 adult-education centers were administered the VARK Learning Styles Questionnaire. Most participants came from Mexico and El Salvador, their ages ranged from 23 to 45, and females were an average of 10 years older than males. Note taking was chosen by 1/3 of participants as their favorite learning style, 20% favored aural modes, 15% favored kinesthetic, 4% favored visual, and 15% chose combinations of learning styles. Females chose auditory and multimodal learning styles, while males favored note taking. Students differed by level of English proficiency, beginning-intermediate favoring aural learning styles more than advanced students. ANOVA results indicated that participants were significantly less visual and more read-write than either aural or kinesthetic, but males and females differed significantly in their choice of aural learning. Hispanic males chose note taking and kinesthetic learning styles significantly more than visual or auditory modes of learning. Hispanic females chose note taking, aural, and kinesthetic learning styles significantly more than visual. Asian males favored note taking and aural learning. Correlation was found between age and learning styles with subgroups exhibiting a negative correlation between age and kinesthetic learning, with Mexican males and females exhibiting the strongest negative correlation. Males showed a low positive correlation between age and note taking.     

External stimulus control of target-directed attack and biting elicited by tailshock

Two experiments evaluating the effects of external stimuli on attack and biting in rats elicited by electric tailshock are reported. In the first experiment, stimuli presented to four groups of test subjects consisted of a stimulus animal, a stimulus animal plus taped vocalizations of a rat experiencing shock, an inanimate object, and an inanimate object plus taped vocalizations. Subjects in a fifth (control) group were tested in the absence of these stimuli. The presence of another animal in the test situation significantly increased the amount of target-directed responding. A decrease in responding, rather than increase, was shown by the subjects tested under the stimulus-object plus taped-vocalization conditions. Experiment 2 investigated the salient features of the stimulus animal and found a combination of both olfactory and visual cues to be most effective in eliciting target-directed responding. These studies indicate that the amount of target-directed attack and biting shown in this situation may be related causally to the type of sensory input received by the test animal.     

Memory training program for older adults

ABSTRACT

Objective: Memory loss affects a large proportion of older adults. Research indicates a positive association between memory training and better memory performance as people age. However, studies on specific memory training using an experimental design are limited. This study explored whether memory training has improved memory performance in a group of older adults.

Method: A convenience sample of 48 participants was recruited from two communities. Disregarding dropouts, this left 23 experimental (mean age = 65.4 ± 6.0, range = 56–80) and 19 control participants (mean age = 64.5 ± 4.9, range: 57–72). The intervention consisted of 60-min classes held on a weekly basis continuing for 8 weeks. The class session was held after a 1-h exercise class and before a 1-h session of cognitive games. The pre–post objective memory performances, including associative, list, text, place, grocery learning, and transfer-effect of daily event memory (ecology validity), were examined to determine whether the intervention was effective.

Results: Intragroup: With Wilcoxon test, the findings showed that the intervention of both the list and place learning had significant differences for the experimental group, but not for the control group. Intergroup: The main effects were found for the associative and text learning. The mixed design ANOVA indicated that there is an interaction (time x group) on the dependent variable of the place learning test. Daily events memory: We found within group that the pre–post differences were significant for the experimental group but not for the control group.

Conclusion: The study showed that memory training can help older adults to ameliorate memory loss problems and these findings deserve more attention.     

Using mindful movement in cooperative learning while learning about angles

Unlike studies on cooperative learning that have focused on the verbal communication aspect of learning, this study focuses on the non-verbal aspect—mindful movement, which is the use of body movement to aid academic learning. Our research examined the link between five learning activities occurring within a cooperative group of children using mindful movement and improvement of their academic achievements in the study of angles in geometry class. The learning activities were: (a) physical contact with the studied environment; (b) using visual and kinesthetic modeling; (c) socio-kinesthetic interaction; (d) sustaining the movement-aided learning activity; (e) non-learning behaviors. 261 learners from eight-second and third grade classes in six different schools participated in the research. The experimental group included 158 learners from five classes. The control group included 103 learners from three classes. It was found that, compared to the conventionally taught control group, the experimental group using mindful movement in cooperative learning reached significantly better results in studying angles. Additionally, a significantly positive correlation was found between each of the five variants of learning activities and improvement in academic achievement.     

Retired Teachers Reflect on Learning from Experience

An attempt to clarify how learning from experience takes place and the role memory plays in the process was carried out in the frame of a study of retired teachers' accounts of their teaching, focusing on their views on the transformation of experience into professional wisdom. Forty-three retired teachers participated in the study and were asked to talk about their professional memories. The stimulus question was: 'What can you tell me about recollected events of your teaching practice?'. Further data was collected through lengthy and repeated interviews with 15 teachers. In the interviews, retired teachers were asked what the role of experience was in the development of their professional knowledge. They focused on the necessary conditions for learning from experience, as well as on the process itself. Among the necessary conditions for learning from experience, teachers in the present study mentioned time, maturity, and interaction with others. The following characteristics of the learning process were identified: the importance of narratives; the emotional aspects of learning from experience; and the role of disequilibrium and reframing. Teachers' recollections concerning their practice and insights about learning from experience represent cases of practice that can be analyzed and discussed in pre-service and in-service courses. They serve to create a sense of professional identity and continuity.     

Module Development Through Peer-assisted Student Support: An initial evaluation

The importance of effective module development in terms of content and delivery is becoming increasingly significant within higher education. The majority of evaluation exercises are relatively static and reactive, predominantly utilising standardised evaluation questionnaires. This paper examines the effectiveness of utilising peer-assisted student support, a form of student-centred learning to provide module feedback that cannot be easily identified through traditional methods. Data from meeting logs, observations, interviews and questionnaires demonstrates that student-centred learning feedback can enhance module development, identifying and prompting effective remedial action in shorter timescales. The paper therefore concludes that feedback from student-centred learning initiatives is a viable and dynamic alternative to traditional modes of module development that requires further consideration .