Memory,IQ and Examination Performance

ABSTRACT Two studies explored individual differences in general memory ability and their relation to performance in a public examination taken at age 15‐16 years in England and Wales. Five memory tasks were used to test both immediate memory and retention a week later. Rank orders of performance across the memory tasks, with IQ partialled out, were found to be significantly related, suggesting some general process. Separate indices of general memory ability for the immediate and delayed tests were highly correlated with each other and also with self‐ratings of memory ability. Multiple regression revealed that self‐rating of memory ability was the only significant independent predictor of examination performance. The results suggest that individual differences in memory ability account for between 10 and 20% of the variance in performance in this examination in groups of above‐average IQ. Possible reasons for the importance of memory in this context and implications for instructional methods are discussed.     

Psychiatry in the sorting of schoolchildren in Scandinavia 1920–1950: IQ testing,child guidance clinics,and hospitalisation

ABSTRACT

This article explores the role of psychiatry in the sorting of schoolchildren in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden from 1920 to 1950. Whereas the role and rise of educational psychology and IQ-testing in the differentiation processes in schooling have been examined through earlier research, the role of psychiatry in the interprofessional collaboration has so far been largely unexplored when it comes to the Scandinavian case. In line with Michel Foucault, the article regards these professional efforts as part of the biopolitics, where psychiatry amongst other disciplines engaged in the development of means to involve strategically in the life of schoolchildren and their families, as part of shaping the future of the population. We argue that psychiatric sorting activities related to schoolchildren did not solely take place through IQ-testing in schools, but involved classification of children through a range of measures in various settings. We further argue that these processes took place due to local agents and initiatives in a broader context of interprofessional collaborations between psychiatrists, psychologists, and teachers, rather than top–down processes initiated by the state. The analysis in the article draws on different sources of the period: journals, articles, and monographs from the key-agents of the period.     

Coparenting,Parenting Stress,and Authoritative Parenting among Hong Kong Chinese Mothers and Fathers

SYNOPSIS

Objective. This paper examines whether the effects of spousal coparenting on authoritative parenting are mediated through parenting stress. Design. A total of 166 married, heterosexual couples in Hong Kong with a preschool child provided information about their spouse’s level of cooperation and triangulation in their coparenting relationship at Time 1; their own parenting stress at Times 1 & 2; and their authoritative parenting at Times 1, 2, and 3. Results. Cooperation at Time 1 affected fathers’ authoritative parenting at Time 3 completely mediated through fathers’ parenting stress at Time 2. There were no mediated or direct effects on authoritative parenting for mothers, although triangulation at Time 1 predicted mothers’ parenting stress at Time 2. Conclusion. Parenting stress mediates the relation between coparenting and authoritative parenting for fathers, suggesting the need to encourage cooperation from mothers. In this way fathers’ stress related to their role as parent will decrease, helping to promote their authoritative parenting.     

Infant IQ Ratings Evaluated after an Interval of Seven Years

The four types of control groups commonly employed in cognitive manipulation studies were identified and arguments were presented concerning the problematic nature of each group as a baseline for identifying the “true” treatment effect. A general, two-step control procedure was advocated in which the researcher first identifies the most appropriate control group for a given context and then supplements this experimental control with statistical control. In reference to the latter controls, procedures were presented for developing a task-specific index as a covariable to be employed with a suitable measure of verbal aptitude in an analysis of covariance. The procedure was demonstrated on data from a quasi-experimental design in which it was shown that three different conclusions were possible depending upon the control procedures employed. It was argued that the converging operations obtained from the multivariate approach to the data analyses supported the results from the two-step control procedure. This procedure is not presented as a panacea but represents an attempt to “go beyond” the mechanical appocation of typical experimental controls for placebo effects.     

Academic Attitudes,Expectations, and Achievement

Scholars Who Teach: The Art of College Teaching: Edited by Steven M. Cahn: Nelson-Hall, Chicago, 1978, Cloth $14.95, Paper $7.95, 246 pages. Reviewed by Marilyn L. Schaefer.

Support for Teaching at Major Universities: Edited by Stanford C. Ericksen with John A. Cook.: Ann Arbor, Michigan: The Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, Fall, 1979. $3.00. Reviewed by Kurt F. Geisinger.     

Arrested Motherhood: Parenting,Cognitive Distortions,and Depressive Symptoms in Mothers Being Released from Incarceration

Objective. The present study examines cognitive and emotional problems in mothers being released from incarceration. Design. Participants were 98 mothers who were about to be released or had just been released from incarceration, and 63 comparison mothers from disadvantaged areas with low socioeconomic status, both with young children. Mothers provided self-report data on parenting behaviors, cognitive distortions, depressive symptoms, and socioeconomic difficulties. Results. Mothers being released from incarceration reported less optimal parenting behaviors (i.e., less involvement and poorer monitoring) and higher levels of cognitive distortions and depressive symptoms than comparison mothers. Cognitive distortions and depressive symptoms were related to less optimal reported parenting behaviors. Conclusions. Cognitive distortions, depressive symptoms, and less optimal reported parenting behaviors may be factors in incarcerated and formerly incarcerated mothers, which might put their children at risk, beyond risks associated with low socioeconomic status.     

Coordination between child welfare agencies and mental health service providers,children's service use,and outcomes

ObjectiveInterorganizational relationships (IORs) between child welfare agencies and mental health service providers may facilitate mental health treatment access for vulnerable children. This study investigates whether IORs are associated with greater use of mental health services and improvement in mental health status for children served by the child welfare system.MethodsThis was a longitudinal analysis of data from a 36-month period in the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). The sample consisted of 1,613 children within 75 child welfare agencies who were 2 years or older and had mental health problems at baseline. IOR intensity was measured as the number of coordination approaches between each child welfare agency and mental health service providers. Separate weighted multilevel logistic regression models tested associations between IORs and service use and outcomes, respectively.ResultsAgency-level factors accounted for 9% of the variance in the probability of service use and 12% of mental health improvement. Greater intensity of IORs was associated with higher likelihood of both service use and mental health improvement.ConclusionsHaving greater numbers of ties with mental health providers may help child welfare agencies improve children's mental health service access and outcomes.Practice implicationsPolicymakers should develop policies and initiatives to encourage a combination of different types of organizational ties between child welfare and mental health systems. For instance, information sharing at the agency level in addition to coordination at the case level may improve the coordination necessary to serve these vulnerable children.     

Childhood experiences of maltreatment,reflective functioning and attachment in adolescent and young adult mothers: Effects on mother-infant interaction and emotion regulation

BackgroundMaternal childhood experiences of maltreatment affect parenting and have consequences for a child’s social-emotional development. Adolescent mothers have a higher frequency of a history of maltreatment than adult mothers. However few studies have analyzed the interactions between adolescent mothers with a history of childhood maltreatment and their infants.ObjectiveThe aim of the study was to examine the effect of maternal childhood experiences of maltreatment on mother-infant emotion regulation at infant 3 months, considering both infant and mother individual emotion regulation and their mutual regulation.ParticipantsParticipants were 63 adolescent and young adult mother-infant dyads recruited at a hospital.MethodsThe mothers were administered the Adult Attachment Interview to evaluate reflective functioning and attachment and the Childhood Experiences of Care and Abuse was used to evaluate maternal childhood experiences of maltreatment. Mother-infant interactions were coded with a modified version of the Infant Caregiver Engagement Phases.ResultsDyads with mothers with childhood maltreatment (vs dyads with mothers with no maltreatment) spent more time in negative emotional mutual regulation (p = .009) and less time in positive and neutral mutual emotion regulation (p = .019). Cumulative maternal childhood experiences of maltreatment were associated positively with mother and infant negative states at individual and dyadic level and with the AAI scales of Passivity and Unresolved Trauma (p < .05). The effect of cumulative maternal childhood experiences of maltreatment on mother-infant emotion regulation was direct and not mediated by maternal attachment and reflective function.ConclusionsMaternal childhood experiences of maltreatment increase the risk connected to early motherhood, affecting mother-infant emotion regulation.     

Patterns of childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence,emotion dysregulation,and mental health symptoms among lesbian,gay, and bisexual emerging adults: A three-step latent class approach

BackgroundChildhood abuse and neglect (CAN) and intimate partner violence victimization (IPV) is prevalent among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals (LGB). Identification of distinct patterns of childhood and adult victimization, including technology-mediated and face-to-face IPV, and their cumulative relations to mental/behavioral health challenges, among LGB people is needed to facilitate identification of at-risk individuals.ObjectiveUsing latent class analysis, we first sought to identify patterns of lifetime interpersonal victimization, primarily five types of CAN and IPV in LGB emerging adults. Second, we examined if LGB-status and race/ethnicity predicted class-membership; third, we assessed differences between the latent classes on emotion dysregulation, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and alcohol use.ParticipantsParticipants were 288 LGB adults between 18–29 years (M = 25.35, SD = 2.76; 41.7% gay/lesbian) recruited via Amazon MTurk.Methods and resultsThe 3-step LCA identified five-latent classes: high victimization, childhood emotional abuse and neglect, cybervictimization, adult face-to-face IPV, and lower victimization. People of color (including Hispanics) were more likely to be in the high victimization class, and bisexual individuals, especially bisexual women, in the childhood emotional abuse and neglect class. High victimization and childhood emotional abuse and neglect classes had elevated emotion dysregulation levels and depression and anxiety symptoms, and the high victimization class reported the highest levels of alcohol use.ConclusionFindings suggest a detrimental effect of cumulative interpersonal victimization on emotion dysregulation and the mental/behavioral health of LGB emerging adults, with bisexuals and LGB-people of color at heightened risk of cumulative victimization and of related mental/behavioral health challenges.     

Early motherhood and harsh parenting: The role of human,social, and cultural capital

ObjectiveThis study examined the role of maternal human, social, and cultural capital in the relationship between early motherhood and harsh parenting behavior.MethodsThis study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing (FFCW) Study. Harsh parenting behaviors by mothers who were 19 years or younger at birth of the focal child (n = 598) were compared with that of adult mothers 26 years or older (n = 1,363). Measures included: For harsh parenting behavior, three proxies were created from the Parent to Child version of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS-PC) and self-reports of maternal spanking. For maternal human capital, education, employment, and depression were used. For maternal social capital, expected-social support, paternal support, and lone caregiver status were included. For maternal cultural capital, religious attendance and attachment to race/ethnic heritage were used.ResultsMultivariate analyses indicated that adolescent motherhood has a significant impact on all three harsh parenting behavior outcomes even after controlling for demographic and maternal capital characteristics. Working since the birth of the focal child, depression scores, paternal support, expected-social support, and attendance at religious services made independent contributions to the prediction of harsh parenting behavior.ConclusionsFindings emphasize the importance of the prevention of adolescent motherhood and suggest intervention strategies for reducing the risk of maternal harsh parenting behavior. Further study is necessary to examine the complicated relationships among maternal capital and parenting. One method may be to focus on the development of measures of maternal capital, notably measures of expectations regarding and perceptions of received capital.Practice implicationsFindings from this study have implications for social work practice, particularly for the prevention of adolescent pregnancy and intervention with adolescent mothers and their children. First, the study calls for more recognition of school social work and intervention programs in school settings as important components of prevention services. Second, the importance of identifying fathers and helping them become involved and connected with their young families are highlighted. Finally, practitioners should become more aware of the role of culture in young families as the effect of cultural capital on parenting behavior becomes better understood.     

Intimate partner violence exposure, salivary cortisol, and childhood asthma

ObjectivesNeuroendocrine alterations may help explain health differences between intimate partner violence (IPV) exposed children and non-exposed children. We sought to determine the feasibility of having families, recruited at a child asthma visit, collect at home and return via mail child salivary samples, and whether socio-demographic variables were associated with sample return. For those returning samples, we examined whether past-year IPV exposure was associated with total cortisol output (AUC) and the magnitude of the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and whether these cortisol values were associated with asthma control.MethodsFifty-five families with an asthmatic child of any age were recruited from 2 pediatric asthma clinics. At the time of the visit, parents completed a survey packet which included a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale to assess IPV. Parents were given supplies to collect 3 child salivary cortisol samples (awakening, 30-min after awakening, bedtime) at home on a typical day, and return them via mail. Medical records also were abstracted.ResultsFifty-three percent (n = 29) returned child salivary samples. Families who returned samples typically returned them within 2 weeks, most commonly before we made a reminder call. Parental male sex was associated (p = .06) with increased rate of return at the trend level. In multivariable models, a 1-unit increase in IPV was significantly associated with a .93 SD increase in root-transformed total cortisol output (AUC) (un-standardized beta = 2.5; SE .59; p = .001). The odds of uncontrolled asthma were marginally higher for every nmol/l increase in CAR (OR 1.04; 95% CI 1.0, 1.1; p = .06).ConclusionsThis study provides support for the feasibility of obtaining a moderate return of salivary specimens from a convenience sample. Findings that IPV was associated with elevated total cortisol output and uncontrolled asthma was marginally associated with cortisol awakening response suggest that future studies should investigate whether cortisol mediates the IPV-child asthma relationship.     

Maternal adverse childhood experiences,attachment style,and mental health: Pathways of transmission to child behavior problems

BackgroundInvestigations have found mothers’ adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) confer an intergenerational risk to their children's outcomes. However, mechanisms underlying this transmission have only been partially explained by maternal mental health. Adult attachment insecurity has been shown to mediate the association of ACEs and mental health outcomes, yet an extension of this research to children's behavioral problems has not been examined.ObjectiveTo examine the cascade from maternal ACEs to risk for child behavioral problems at five years of age, via mothers’ attachment insecurity and mental health.Participants and settingParticipants in the current study were 1994 mother-child dyads from a prospective longitudinal cohort collected from January 2011 to October 2014.MethodsMothers retrospectively reported their ACEs when children were 36 months of age. When children were 60 months of age, mothers completed measures of their attachment style, depression and anxiety symptoms, and their children's behavior problems.ResultsPath analysis demonstrated maternal ACEs were associated with children's internalizing problems indirectly via maternal attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, and depression symptoms, but not directly (β = .05, 95% CI [−.001, .10]). Maternal ACEs indirectly predicted children's externalizing problems via maternal attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, and depression. A direct effect was also observed from maternal ACEs to child externalizing problems (β = .06, 95% CI [.01, .11]).ConclusionsMaternal ACEs influenced children's risk for poor behavioral outcomes via direct and indirect intermediary pathways. Addressing maternal insecure attachment style and depression symptoms as intervention targets for mothers with histories of ACEs may help to mitigate the intergenerational transmission of risk.     

Posttraumatic cognitions,childhood sexual abuse characteristics,and posttraumatic stress disorder in men who have sex with men

BackgroundHigh rates of experience of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) among in men who have sex with men (MSM) place this population at increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).ObjectiveThis study explores how specific characteristics of CSA relate to posttraumatic cognitions (PTCs) and explores the role that specific PTCs play in the relationship between CSA and PTSD in MSM.MethodsTwo-hundred and ninety MSM completed a CSA interview, the Davidson Trauma Scale, and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory.ResultsControlling for sociodemographic factors, CSA involving physical injury and CSA with intense fear were associated with higher levels of PTCs about the self and world, but not with self-blame. We did not find significant associations for CSA involving a family member, CSA with penetration, or duration or frequency of CSA with any subscale on the PTCI. Experiencing CSA for the first time during adolescence was associated with higher self-blame. Analyses revealed that physical injury and intense fear each had indirect effects on PTSD symptoms through negative cognitions about the self and world. First CSA episode during adolescence had an indirect effect on PTSD symptoms through self-blame. CSAs accounted for 16.7% and PTCs accounted for 31.7% of the variance in PTSD, underlining the importance of PTCs.ConclusionsAssessing for physical injury, intense fear, and age at first CSA are particularly relevant to PTCs and of critical importance to advancing assessment and treatment strategies for PTSD in MSM.     

Stability of Observed Maternal Behavior Across Tasks,Time, and Siblings

Objective. To further understanding of the stability and variability in maternal behavior across tasks, time, and sibling pairs. Design. Mothers (a total of 451) were observed separately in interactions with two of their children across two tasks and three time points. Independent observers rated responsive and negative maternal behaviors. Results. Moderate to large correlations across tasks (responsivity = .51; negativity = .41), time points (responsivity = .40; negativity = .38), and siblings (responsivity = .56; negativity = .49) were found. Although these correlations indicate significant stability (i.e., consistency) of maternal behavior, they also indicate variability, with unexplained variance ranging from 69–84% for responsivity and 75–86% for negativity. Conclusions. Proportions of maternal behavior across tasks, time, and siblings can and cannot be accurately predicted given examination of maternal behavior in a comparable task, later time point, or sibling. The current study underscores the importance of considering both stability and variability as equally critical components for understanding maternal behavior.     

Secondary school students’ attitudes to practical work in biology,chemistry and physics in England

ABSTRACT

Background: In England, practical work is a major part of secondary school science and yet little research has examined students’ attitudes specifically to practical work.

Purpose: To examine students’ attitudes to practical work in biology chemistry and physics in secondary schools in England.

Sample: The study involved 607 students from Year 7 to Year 10 (aged 11–15) drawn from three state-maintained secondary schools in England. The schools were, broadly speaking, representative of schools in England in terms of academic measures such as GCSE outcomes, value-added performance and socio-economic area.

Design and methods: The research considered students’ attitudes in terms of an established analytical framework incorporating the affective, behavioural and cognitive (ABC) domains and used a mixed methods approach involving questionnaires, lesson observations, and focus group discussions.

Results: Whilst secondary students’ attitudes to practical work were, generally speaking, positive they were not constant and homogenous but change over time. The affective value of practical work was found to vary by subject although in all three sciences this value decreased, albeit at different rates, as students approached their General Certificate in Secondary Education examinations (GCSE) taken at age 16.

Conclusion: The affective value of practical work needs to be considered on a subject by subject basis, rather than, as is often the case currently in school, in terms of a generic attitude to science practical work. Furthermore, the affective value of practical work can be maximised by using more at the start of secondary education (Key Stage 3 – ages 11–14) with a gradual, subject-specific, reduction as students approach their summative public examinations (age 16) when their preference for non-practical, exam orientated, teaching increases.     

A mediational model linking perceptions of security,alexithymia and behavior problems of sexually abused children

BackgroundPerceptions of security toward parents are related with internalized and externalized problems among victims of child sexual abuse (CSA). Alexithymia, which is difficulty in identifying and expressing feelings, is associated with the quality of parent-child relationships (Oskis et al., 2013) and behavior problems in children (Di Trani et al., 2013).ObjectiveThe current study tested the mediational role of alexithymia in the relationship between perceptions of security toward parents and behavior problems among CSA victims.Participants and methodUsing a short-term multi-informant prospective design, 263 victims of CSA aged 6–12 years completed the Kerns Security Scale (Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996), which evaluates perceived attachment security to mothers and fathers. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) at Time 1 to provide baseline scores of behavior problems and again four months later. At Time 2, parents also assessed the children’s alexithymia using the Children’s Alexithymia Measure (Way et al., 2010).ResultsPerceptions of security were both associated with alexithymia, as well as with internalizing and externalizing problems (p < .05). A mediational model showed that perception of security toward fathers outweighed the mother-child relationship in predicting children’s alexithymia. Path analysis revealed that the father-child relationship predicted decreased behavioral problems at Time 2 through a lower level of alexithymia. The model explained 46.9% of internalizing problems and 56.1% of externalizing problems (p < .05).ConclusionsThe findings support the relevance of alexithymia as an intervention target for CSA victims and underscore the importance of the father-child relationship.     

A longitudinal study on the relationship among childhood emotional abuse,gratitude, and suicidal ideation of Chinese adolescents

Background and objectiveSuicidal ideation is a significant predictor of suicidal attempt. Based on the developmental psychopathology perspective and the resilience theory, this study examines whether trait gratitude mediates the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and adolescent suicidal ideation.Participants and settingA sample of 909 Grade 8 to Grade 9 adolescents aged 12–18 years in Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region in China, was recruited from six secondary schools.MethodA two-wave longitudinal study was conducted. Participants completed the same measures on Gratitude Quesitonnaire-6, Suicidal Ideation Scale, emotional subscale of Child Abuse and Trauma Scale at two time points 12 months apart.ResultsResults of cross-lagged analyses showed that adolescents’ suicidal ideation was positively associated with childhood emotional abuse and negatively associated with gratitude; further, the association between childhood emotional abuse and suicidal ideation was mediated by gratitude.ConclusionsFindings of this study implied that while exposure to parental emotional abuse might have an adverse impact on the development of gratitude, adolescents’ current level of gratitude still exerts its protective effect by directly reducing their suicidal ideation. Gratitude or other resilience factors that might comprise additional mediating mechanisms from childhood emotional abuse to mental health problems in later life is worthy of further investigation.     

Placement disruption in foster care: Children’s behavior,foster parent support,and parenting experiences

BackgroundThe majority of children in foster care 24 months or longer experience three or more placements. Children’s behavior problems are a primary contributor to multiple moves, but little is known about how behavior problems and other stressors lead to disruptions. This study focused on foster parents’ experiences of parenting a child at risk for moves using the determinants of parenting model (Belsky, 1984) to identify potential correlates of difficult parenting experiences and placement disruption.ObjectiveTo identify factors associated with difficult parenting experiences and placement disruption.ParticipantsFoster parents (N = 139) caring for children age 8–14 in long term foster care with a history of two or more moves were randomly selected in a large Midwestern state in the U.S.MethodsParticipants completed a 90-minute telephone interview (86% response rate). Placement moves were tracked prospectively for two years. Parenting experiences and disruption were analyzed using multiple and logistic regression.ResultsResults support aspects of the determinants of parenting model. Behavior problems, children’s risk to others, low support, and stress were significantly associated with more difficult parenting experiences (βs = .28, .22, .18, .19, respectively, ps < .05), and more difficult parenting experiences strongly predicted placement disruption (p < .01). Risk to others also predicted disruption before including parenting experiences, with this association becoming nonsignificant after including parenting experiences. Unexpectedly, African American foster parents had a higher risk for disruption, despite more positive parenting experiences.ConclusionsThese findings support attending to foster parents’ parenting experiences, children’s risk to others, social support and stress to better support placements of children at risk for disruption.     

Teaching Biology at a Distance: Pleasures,Pitfalls, and Possibilities

Abstract

The Open University (OU) has a long and distinguished history of teaching biology at a distance by a supported open learning model. This article examines some of the challenges in delivering biology via distance teaching, explores some of the lessons learned, and discusses the opportunities and hazards of new teaching technologies that the OU has helped pioneer.