Introduction: The secret lives of textbooks

Textbooks have a low status in the history of science because they have been seen as mere repositories for scientific knowledge. But historians have recently shown how they play a number of roles that can illuminate different aspects of the history of science, from priority disputes to pedagogical practices. The essays in this Focus section aim to expand our vision of textbooks further by showing how they perform various hybrid functions in scientific development.     

Time, money, and history

This essay argues that taking the economy seriously in histories of science could not only extend the range of activities studied but also change--often quite radically--our understanding of well-known cases and instances in twentieth-century science. It shows how scientific intellectuals and historians of science have followed the money as a means of critique of particular forms of science and of particular conceptions of science. It suggests the need to go further, to a much broader implicit definition of what constitutes science--one that implies a criticism of much history of twentieth-century science for defining it implicitly and inappropriately in very restrictive ways.     

What difference does history of science make, anyway?

This essay opens up the question of what difference the history of science makes. What is the value of the history of science, beyond its role as an academic pursuit that we historians of science know and love? It introduces the set of essays that follow as explorations that grew out of a seminar on this topic and that arise from the authors' particular concerns both that historians of science do not work hard enough to make their work of value and that others do not know of the potential. That seminar, at the Marine Biological Laboratory, was funded for nineteen years by the Dibner Institute and last year by Brent Dibner. It will continue and carry such discussions forward in new ways as the Arizona State University-Marine Biological Laboratory History of Biology Seminar Series. This set of focused essays seeks to invite lively discussion and response.     

基于DEA-Tobit模型的科技金融效率影响因素研究

运用DEA-Tobit模型对我国2009—2014年24个省市的面板数据进行实证分析,以高技术企业、政府和创投企业这三个科技金融主体为视角探索各因素对科技金融效率的影响。研究表明,随着科技金融投入的不断增加,科技金融效率并未提高;高技术企业总产值占GDP比重、创投企业数量和创投企业吸引投资金额是影响科技金融效率的重要因素。提出提高财政资金监管力度、合理配置科技资源、扩大高技术产业规模、积极引导创投企业发展等政策含义。     

论第三部门必要性与合理性——基于科技体系改革视角

我国现行科技计划体系中,成果鉴定、科技投入及人才政策系统为其核心构成.由于其行为主体均是公权部门即政府主管部门,实际运行暴露出诸多体制性问题,使得公共科技服务不均等、不公平,政策资源和资金投入低效使用或造成浪费.以第三部门为主体组成技术联合体,承接上述政府职能,发挥客观公正、参与广泛、科学民主和专业化、独立性特点,是改革突破口之一.论证其必要性与合理性,藉此提出对策性建议.     

Introduction: Reengaging with instruments

Over the past twenty years or so, historians of science have become increasingly sensitized to issues involved in studying and interpreting scientific and medical instruments. The contributors to this Focus section are historians of science who have worked closely with museum objects and collections, specifically instruments used in scientific and medical contexts. Such close engagement by historians of science is somewhat rare, provoking distinctive questions as to how we define and understand instruments, opening up issues regarding the value of broken or incomplete objects, and raising concerns about which scientific and medical artifacts are displayed and interpreted in museums and in what manner. It is hoped that these essays point historians of science in new directions for reengaging with scientific objects and collections.     

Artificial Intelligence (AI): Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges,opportunities, and agenda for research,practice and policy

As far back as the industrial revolution, significant development in technical innovation has succeeded in transforming numerous manual tasks and processes that had been in existence for decades where humans had reached the limits of physical capacity. Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers this same transformative potential for the augmentation and potential replacement of human tasks and activities within a wide range of industrial, intellectual and social applications. The pace of change for this new AI technological age is staggering, with new breakthroughs in algorithmic machine learning and autonomous decision-making, engendering new opportunities for continued innovation. The impact of AI could be significant, with industries ranging from: finance, healthcare, manufacturing, retail, supply chain, logistics and utilities, all potentially disrupted by the onset of AI technologies. The study brings together the collective insight from a number of leading expert contributors to highlight the significant opportunities, realistic assessment of impact, challenges and potential research agenda posed by the rapid emergence of AI within a number of domains: business and management, government, public sector, and science and technology. This research offers significant and timely insight to AI technology and its impact on the future of industry and society in general, whilst recognising the societal and industrial influence on pace and direction of AI development.     

The skeleton in the closet: should historians of science care about the history of mathematics?

Up until the 1950s, the history of mathematics was an integral part of the history of science. To George Sarton and his contemporaries, mathematics was the rational skeleton that organized science and held it together, and its history was a fundamental component of the broader history of science. But when historians began focusing on the cultural roots of science rather than its rational structure, the study of mathematics was marginalized and ultimately excluded from the history of science. The alienation between the two fields is detrimental to both, and in recent years there has been a sustained effort to reestablish meaningful communication between the two. This time, however, mathematics is seen not as the static skeleton of science but, instead, as a dynamic and historically evolving field in its own right-just like science itself. The new approach allows for a culturally sensitive study of mathematics, as well as a new and fruitful relationship between the history of science and the history of mathematics. The essays in this Focus section offer a sampling of the new approaches, opening the way to a rapprochement between fields that have gone their separate ways but should by rights be closely interconnected.     

国家财政科技投入体系的信息库建设问题初探

指出由于缺乏全国统一的国家财政科技投入体系信息库，导致许多弊端的产生。提出了以财政资助的各类科技项目及其成果和相关专家等信息为主要内容创建全国统一的国家科学技术信息库的构想及其建设管理方案。认为国家科学技术信息库的创建有助于弥补中国现行科技信息体系所存在的严重缺陷并克服其所导致的诸多弊端。     

论中国如何发展自主可控和开放的科技产业

在竞争日益激烈的国际环境下,自主可控和开放合作是发展科技产业的双翼,同等重要。自主可控让我们无后顾之忧;开放合作则允许我们充分开展全球分工与合作,获得竞争优势。文章分析了计算机产业发展史上的重要技术创新:移动芯片ARM和移动操作系统安卓(Android),以及正在发展的智能计算机产业,探讨了新的国际竞争环境下如何才能建立有竞争力的应用科学技术体系。文章认为:(1)只有从源头或者主干开始的基础性技术创新才可能真正做到自主可控,并充分享有国际分工与合作的好处;智能计算机是中国建立自主可控和开放产业的一个机会。(2)只有改变评价体系,从机械地统计论文数目和引用转向重视从源头或者主干开始的基础性技术创新,改变头重脚轻的学科布局,重视知识产权保护,充分利用国际智力开展分工与合作,才能建立具有国际竞争力的应用科学技术体系。     

基于熵权-G1法的科技评价模型及实证研究

 利用客观赋权的熵权法和主观赋权法的G1法对指标进行组合赋权,建立了基于组合赋权法的科学技术综合评价模型,并对中国2000-2005年期间的科技发展进行了评价。本文的特色与创新一是构建了包含治理工业污染投资等反映科学发展观的评价指标体系。二是在G1法确定指标权重时,对准则层和各指标层分别用G1法赋权,解决G1法直接对指标层赋权、无法对准则层进行评价与排序的问题。三是对主观赋权G1法与客观赋权熵权法得到的权重组合赋权。这就避免了现有研究的客观赋权法无法反映专家经验、或主观赋权法无法反映客观条件变化的双重弊端。     

This view of science: Stephen Jay Gould as historian of science and scientific historian,popular scientist and scientific popularizer

Science historian Ronald Numbers once remarked that the two most influential historians of science of the 20th century were Thomas Kuhn and Stephen Jay Gould. All historians are deeply familiar with Kuhn's work and influence, and most know of the remarkable impact Gould has had on evolutionary theory through both his professional and popular works. But little attention has been paid to the depth, scope, and importance of Gould's r?le as historian and philosopher of science, and his use of popular science exposition to reinforce old knowledge and generate new. This paper presents the results of an extensive quantitative content analysis of Gould's 22 books, 101 book reviews, 479 scientific papers, and 300 Natural History essays, in terms of their subject matter (Evolutionary Theory, History and Philosophy of Science, Natural History, Paleontology/Geology, Social Science/Commentary), and thematic dichotomies (Theory-Data, Time's Arrow-Time's Cycle, Adaptationism- Nonadaptationalism, Punctuationism-Gradualism, Contingency-Necessity). Special emphasis is placed on the interaction between the subjects and themata, how Gould has used the history of science to reinforce his evolutionary theory (and vice versa), and how his philosophy of science has influenced both his evolutionary theory and his historiography. That philosophy can best be summed up in a quotation from Charles Darwin, frequently cited by Gould: 'All observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any service'. Gould followed Darwin's advice throughout his career, including his extensive writings on the history and philosophy of science.     

Murky waters: thoughts on desire, utility, and the "sea of modem science"

Historians of science in modern China have tried to challenge misconceptions that late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Chinese were slow to master science or, worse, that they missed the point of science altogether. In so doing, we have often put aside basic questions-like why Chinese were interested in modern science in the first place or how they found modern science useful for their own purposes-in order to demonstrate the quality and advancement of scientific work in China. But overlooking these underlying issues not only strengthens the myth of science as an obvious and inevitable step in development; it also limits the relevance of the Chinese case to the history of science more broadly. If, instead, the spread of science is reconceptualized as a problem of desire and utility, the Chinese example may suggest interesting new avenues for the study of cultural innovation across geographic and disciplinary frameworks.     

Working knowledges before and after circa 1800: practices and disciplines in the history of science, technology, and medicine

Historians of science, inasmuch as they are concerned with knowledges and practices rather than institutions, have tended of late to focus on case studies of common processes such as experiment and publication. In so doing, they tend to treat science as a single category, with various local instantiations. Or, alternatively, they relate cases to their specific local contexts. In neither approach do the cases or their contexts build easily into broader histories, reconstructing changing knowledge practices across time and space. This essay argues that by systematically deconstructing the practices of science and technology and medicine (STM) into common, recurrent elements, we can gain usefully "configurational" views, not just of particular cases and contexts but of synchronic variety and diachronic changes, both short term and long. To this end, we can begin with the customary actors' disciplines of early modern knowledge (natural philosophy, natural history, mixed mathematics, and experimental philosophy), which can be understood as elemental "ways of knowing and working," variously combined and disputed. I argue that these same working knowledges, together with a later mode-synthetic experimentation and systematic invention-may also serve for the analysis of STM from the late eighteenth century to the present. The old divisions continued explicitly and importantly after circa 1800, but they were also "built into" an array of new sciences. This historiographic analysis can help clarify a number of common problems: about the multiplicity of the sciences, the importance of various styles in science, and the relations between science and technology and medicine. It suggests new readings of major changes in STM, including the first and second scientific revolutions and the transformations of biomedicine from the later twentieth century. It offers ways of recasting both microhistories and macrohistories, so reducing the apparent distance between them. And it may thus facilitate both more constructive uses of case studies and more innovative and acceptable longer histories.     

情绪、社会价值取向对分配公平观的影响

采用最后通牒博弈实验和独裁者博弈实验考察了情绪、社会价值取向、博弈顺序对分配公平观的影响。结果发现:社会价值取向对个体在两次博弈中的提议数额都产生极其显著的影响,与亲社会取向个体相比,亲自我取向个体在两次博弈中的出价更低,更关注自我获益。情绪对最后通牒博弈提议数额影响显著,和愤怒情绪个体相比,愉快情绪个体出价更高。博弈顺序对提议数额影响不显著,但是和社会价值取向的交互作用对独裁者博弈影响显著。     

更快、更新、更强——也谈图书情报学之发展

跨入新世纪、信息浪潮的冲击和政治，经济体制的转换，使学科环境正处于急剧的变革中。本文从图书情报的传递方法，研究范围及服务形式等几方面，以理论联系实际的方式，阐述了图书情报学必将向着更快，更新，更强的发展趋势前进，并针对发展中出现的一些热点，焦点问题加以分析和研究。     

周作人散文中的博物学

周作人是中国现代散文家、文学理论家、翻译家、思想家、民俗学开拓人。本文将以他的部分小品文为例,探讨其博物学与科普价值。在中国现代科普领域,周作人缘何遇冷,其作品与同时代科普作品相比有何区别,为什么在大多数人看来,周氏作品仅仅只是＂闲适小品文＂？本文试图论述,在我国现代博物学发展之初,人文与科学之间具有真诚的、深层次交流的意愿与能力;传统文化、民间习俗与现代科学之间具有相互弥补和促进的可能。把周作人那些夹杂着民俗、国学、西方博物学兴味的小品文,置于今天的环境中重新品读,会发现它们对民族、社会以及普通人的生活,都有着深切的思考和关照,能够给予当代人启示。     

Focus: the elusive icon: Einstein, 1905-2005. Introduction

As Einstein's portrait comes increasingly to resemble an icon, we lose more than detail--his writings and actions lose all reference. This is as true for his physics as it is for his philosophy and his politics; the best of recent work aims to remove Einstein's interventions from the abstract sphere of Delphic pronouncements and to insert them in the stream of real events, real arguments. Politically, this means attending to McCarthyism, Paul Robeson, the Arab-Israeli conflict. Philosophically, it means tying his concerns, for example, to late nineteenth-century neo-Kantian debates and to his own struggles inside science. And where physics is concerned, it means attending both in the narrow to his responses to others' work and his reactions to his own sometimes misfired early work on, for example, general relativity and to the wider context of technological developments. Einstein remains and will remain a magnet for historians, philosophers, and scientists; the essays assembled here represent a strong sampling--but only a sampling--of a fascinating new generation of work on this perennial figure.     

New directions in the history of modern science in China: global science and comparative history

These essays collectively present new perspectives on the history of modem science in China since 1900. Fa-ti Fan describes how science under the Republic of China after 1911 exhibited a complex local and international character that straddled both imperialism and colonialism. Danian Hu focuses on the fate of relativity in the physics community in China after 1917. Zuoyue Wang hopes that a less nationalist political atmosphere in China will stimulate more transnational studies of modern science, which will in turn reveal the underlying commonalities in different national contexts. Sigrid Schmalzer compares the socialist and the capitalist contexts for science in China and reopens the sensitive question of the "mass line" during the Cultural Revolution. Grace Shen describes the tensions early Chinese scientists felt when choosing between foreign models for modem geology and their own professional identities in China. Taken together, these accounts present us with a comparative history of modern science in China that is both globally and locally informed.     

国际科学教育发展的对比研究——理念、主题与实践的革新

科学教育的重要性不在于传递给学习者确定性的知识,而在于让他们学会把知识作为认知世界的方式,以应对世界的不确定性。21世纪国际科学教育发展以人类可持续发展为指向,以培育科学素养为目标,注重渗透科学本质教育,关注通过深度与连贯的课程搭建科学学习的"共同基础",利用技术激发和融合科学教育创新,强调科学与人文的统一,发挥非正式学习的重要作用,并通过国际评估提升质量。对于科学教育及其重要性的新认识推动着国际科学教育的持续变革,这些趋势对于我国科学教育的战略转型具有启示意义。