Learning through boundary‐crossing: further education lecturers learning in both the university and workplace

This paper reports on a research project that sought to gain a deeper understanding of the contribution that universities make to the professional learning of teachers. The particular case studied was a group of learners who were engaged in an in‐service teacher education course for further education (FE) whilst also working as lecturers in FE colleges in Scotland. The paper develops the narrative of learning across boundaries (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) drawing on the work of Engeström (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). The claim made is that the learning that takes place across the boundary of the workplace and university has the possibility of helping learners to resolve issues that the workplace alone does not provide them with the resources to resolve.

Cet article fait un compte‐rendu sur un projet de recherche dont le but était d'approfondir les connaissances sur la contribution des universités à la formation professionelle des professeurs. Le cas particulier qu'on a étudié était un groupe d'apprenants qui ont suivi un cours de formation d'enseignement professionnelle en travaillent commme professeurs dans des centres d'enseignement professionnel. L'article se déroule la narration d'apprentissage à travers les frontières (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) et d'après les recherches d'Engstrom (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). On prétend que la connaissance qu'on a produit à travers des frontières du lieu de travail et de l'université pourrait aider les étudiants à résoudre des problèmes qu'ils ne pourraient pas résoudre en travaillant seulement.

Este trabajo presenta un proyecto de investigación que ha buscado una comprensión más detallada sobre la contribución aportada por la universidad al aprendizaje profesional del profesorado. El trabajo ha estudiado un grupo de alumnos que participaron en un curso avanzado de educación mientras trabajaban como profesores en institutos de enseñanza en Escocia. El estudio desarrolla la temática del aprendizaje a través de límites (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) inspirándose en el trabajo de Engeström (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). La reivindicación hecha es que el aprendizaje que tiene lugar a través del límite del lugar de trabajo y la universidad tiene la posibilidad de ayudar a los alumnos en resolver asuntos en que el lugar de trabajo por si solo no puede proveerles con los recursos para su resolución.

Dieser Artikel berichtet die Resultate eines Forschungsprojektes, dass zu verstehen versuchte, was Universitäten zum professionellen Lernen von Lehrern beitragen. Ein Gruppe von Studenten wurder untersucht, die in Schottland an Berufsschulen unterrichteten und gleichzeitig an einem Weiterbildungskurs fuer Lehrkräfte an der Universität teilnahmen. Der Artikel ist auf der Arbeit von Engström basiert und konzentriert sich auf Lernen, das über Grenzen hinweg stattfindet (Saunders) (in unserem Fall Arbeitsplatz und Universität). Wir behaupten, dass das solches Lernen grössere Moeglichkeiten bietet, Probleme zu lösen, als Lernen, welches nur am Arbeitsplatz stattfindet.     

“I Went by Twos,He Went by One”: Multiple Interpretations of Inscriptions as Resources for Mathematical Discussions

This article examines a classroom discussion of multiple interpretations of the scales on two distance versus time graphs. The analysis describes how two students and a teacher used multiple meanings for phrases of the form “I went by” and coordinated these meanings with different views of the scales. Students' ambiguous and shifting meanings did not prove to be obstacles to this discussion. Instead, this teacher used student interpretations as resources, built on them, and connected them to canonical mathematical concepts—in particular by highlighting (Goodwin, 1994 Goodwin, C. 1994. Professional vision.. American Anthropologist, 96: 606–633. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) a “unitized” (Lamon, 1994 Lamon, S. 1994. “Ratio and proportion: Cognitive foundations in unitizing and norming.”. In The development of multiplicative reasoning in the learning of mathematics, Edited by: Harel, G. and Confrey, J. 89–120. New York: State University of New York Press..  [Google Scholar], 1996 Lamon, S. 1996. The development of unitizing: Its role in children's partitioning strategies.. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27(2): 170–193. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007 Lamon, S. 2007. “Rational number and proportional reasoning: Toward a theoretical framework.”. In Second handbook of research in mathematics teaching and learning, Edited by: Lester, F. Jr. 629–667. Charlotte, NC: Information Age..  [Google Scholar]) view of the scales. Research in mathematics education describes teaching that promotes conceptual development as having two central features: One is that teachers and students attend explicitly to concepts, and the other is that students wrestle with important mathematics (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007 Hiebert, J. and Grouws, D. 2007. “The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students' learning.”. In Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning, Edited by: Lester, F. 371–404. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics..  [Google Scholar]). Not only does this classroom discussion provide an example that it is possible to balance these two features, but the analysis provides the details of how instruction can simultaneously provide explicit attention to concepts while allowing students to wrestle with these concepts.     

Structural Equation Models of Latent Interactions: Clarification of Orthogonalizing and Double-Mean-Centering Strategies

The purpose of this investigation is to compare a new (double-mean-centering) strategy to estimating latent interactions in structural equation models with the (single) mean-centering strategy (Marsh, Wen, & Hau, 2004 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2004. Structural equation models of latent interactions: Evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction.. Psychological Methods, 9: 275–300. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2006. “Structural equation models of latent interaction and quadratic effects”. In A second course in structural equation modeling Edited by: Hancock, G. and Mueller, R. 225–265. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.  [Google Scholar]) and the orthogonalizing strategy (Little, Bovaird, & Widaman, 2006 Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2006. On the merits of orthogonalizing powered and product term: Implications for modeling interactions among latent variables.. Structural Equation Modeling, 13: 497–519. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Marsh et al., 2007 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K. T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2007. Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual- and mean-centered approaches.. Structural Equation Modeling, 14: 570–580. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A key benefit of the orthogonalizing strategy is that it eliminated the need to estimate a mean structure as required by the mean-centering strategy, but required a potentially cumbersome 2-step estimation procedure. In contrast, the double-mean-centering strategy eliminates both the need for the mean structure and the cumbersome 2-stage estimation procedure. Furthermore, although the orthogonalizing and double-mean-centering strategies are equivalent when all indicators are normally distributed, the double-mean-centering strategy is superior when this normality assumption is violated. In summary, we recommend that applied researchers wanting to estimate latent interaction effects use the double-mean-centering strategy instead of either the single-mean-centering or orthogonalizing strategies, thus allowing them to ignore the cumbersome mean structure.     

Making a difference: moving beyond the superficial treatment of diversity

As populations in contemporary Western societies grow more diverse, the need for teachers to better understand and work with difference productively becomes increasingly critical (Allard & Santoro, 2006 Allard, A. C. and Santoro, N. 2006. Troubling identities: Teacher education students' constructions of class and ethnicity.. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(1): 115–129. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; D'Cruz, 2007 D'Cruz, H. 2007. Working with ‘Diverse Bodies, Diverse Identities’: An approach to professional education about ‘diversity’.. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 11(1): 35–57.  [Google Scholar]). However, the literature on teacher education shows that historically, teacher education programs have aimed to address diversity with add‐on or piecemeal approaches, with little success (McDonald, 2005 McDonald, M. A. 2005. The integration of social justice in teacher education: Dimensions of prospective teachers' opportunities to learn.. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(5): 418–435.  [Google Scholar]). Moreover, some authors (e.g. Lortie, 1975 Lortie, D. 1975. Schoolteacher: A sociological study, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  [Google Scholar]) have argued that “the predispositions teacher education students bring to teaching are a much more powerful socializing influence than either pre‐service education or later socialization in the workplace” (Johnson, 2002 Johnson, L. 2002. “My eyes have been opened”: White teachers and racial awareness.. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2): 153–167. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar], p. 154). This article explores research and scholarship in this area and argues that we must move beyond the fragmented and superficial treatment of diversity if we are to encourage dispositions in all pre‐service teachers that are more closely aligned with a recognitive view of social justice.     

Conducting the “Business of Teaching”: Expectations of Non-instructional Tasks of Beginning STEM Teachers

Abstract

Much debate centers on the most necessary elements of teacher preparation programs, with many focusing on practice of core instructional tasks (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kennedy 2016 Kennedy, M. 2016. Parsing the practice of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 67 (1):6–17. doi: 10.1177/0022487115614617.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which may be diluted in alternative preparation programs (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Teachers prepared in alternative programs tend to have greater difficulties with classroom management, instructional planning, and differentiated instruction (Darling-Hammond 2009 Darling-Hammond, L. 2009. Educational opportunity and alternative certification: New evidence and new questions. Policy Brief (1). Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education. [Google Scholar]; Wilson 2011 Wilson, S. 2011. Effective STEM teacher preparation, induction, and professional development. In National Research Council’s Workshop on Successful STEM Education in K–12 Schools. Washington, DC. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/dbasse/bose/dbasse_080128#.UgEMEFPkDDn. [Google Scholar]); however, few studies have examined alternatively prepared STEM teachers’ beliefs and expectations about teaching and learning (Tigchelaar et al. 2010 Tigchelaar, A., N. Brouwer, and J. Vermunt. 2010. Tailor-made: Towards a pedagogy for educating second-career teachers. Educational Research Review 5 (2):164–83.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Good et al. 2006 Good, T., M. McCaslin, H. Tsang, J. Zhang, C. Wiley, A. Rabidue Bozack, and W. Hester. 2006. How well do 1st-year teachers teach: Does type of preparation make a difference? Journal of Teacher Education 57 (4):410–30.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and fewer still have examined their beliefs about non-instructional responsibilities associated with the profession (LeTendre et al. 2001 LeTendre, G.K., D.P. Baker, M. Akiba, B. Goesling, and A. Wiseman. 2001. Teachers' work: Institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the U.S., Germany, and Japan. Educational Researcher 30 (6):3–15. doi: 10.3102/0013189X030006003.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ovando 2001 Ovando, M. N. 2001. Teachers' perceptions of a learner-centered teacher evaluation system. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 15 (3):213–231. [Google Scholar]; Scriven 1994 Scriven, M. 1994. Duties of the teacher. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 8 (2):151–84. doi: 10.1007/BF00972261.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This inquiry examines the expectations of a cohort of STEM practitioners transitioning into STEM teaching positions from an abbreviated alternative certification program; during their first year of teaching and concurrent final internship, the paid interns exhibited heightened emotional responses (i.e. crying, not eating, not sleeping) documented by university supervisors. Researchers utilized Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins 1987 Higgins, E. T. 1987. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 94 (3):319–40.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to provide an understanding of how expectations can produce negative affect, such as anxiety or depression. Findings suggest this cohort of paid interns had expectations about both personal and non-instructional time, planning, school resources, and legal responsibilities incongruent with the realities of the job. Researchers call for further research on STEM practitioners’ beliefs and expectations of non-instructional tasks as they transition from accelerated M.A.T. programs into teaching.     

Interactive or inactive? a consideration of the nature of interaction in whole class teaching

Recent learning theories and the suggested importance of ‘interactive’ approaches in national initiatives, (NLS, NNS) led to an ESRC‐funded action research project involving the University of Exeter and teachers in three schools—‘Using Talk to Activate Learners’ Knowledge' (TALK). This investigated how ‘interactive’ whole class teaching was and whether teacher‐pupil interactions permitted recoding of information and understanding. The findings corroborate those from Galton (1999 Galton M Hargreaves L Comber C Wall D Pell T (1999a) Inside the primary classroom—20 years on (London, Routledge) [Crossref] [Google Scholar]a, 1999 Galton, M, Hargreaves, L, Comber, C, Wall, D and Pell, T. (1999b). Changes in patterns of teacher interaction in primary classrooms: 1976–1996. British Educational Research Journal, 25(1): 23–37. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]b), Mroz (2000 Mroz, M, Smith, F and Hardman, F. (2000). The discourse of the Literacy Hour. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(3): 379–390. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) and English (2002 English, E, Hargreaves, L and Hislam, J. (2002). Pedagogical dilemmas in the National Literacy Strategy: primary teachers' perceptions, reflections and classroom behaviour. Cambridge Journal of Education, 32(1): 9–26. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]): that teacher‐led questioning and explanation still dominate, as do teachers' objectives. Interaction as participation was differentially experienced by higher and lower abilities, boys and girls, with few opportunities for pupil initiation or extended response. The study, however, provides a model for more fully analysing the varying forms and functions of teachers' questions and statements which may lead to a greater clarity in recognising ways to provide more effective discourse for learning.     

Grading ePortfolios: Tracing Two Approaches,Their Advantages,and Their Disadvantages

How does one grade an electronic portfolio? This question is one I have thought about, have enacted, and have written about, primarily in reference to ePortfolios used in writing classrooms (Yancey, McElroy, & Powers, 2013 Yancey, K. B., McElroy, S., & Powers, E. (2013). Composing, networks, and electronic portfolios: Notes toward a theory of assessing ePortfolios. In D. DeVoss & H. McKee (Eds.), Digital writing assessment and evaluation. Computers and composition. Logan, UT: Digital Press/Utah State University Press. [Google Scholar]). But what happens when the content and developmental levels are changed, in this case from an undergraduate first-year writing class to another required class, this one offered at the graduate level, Digital Revolution and Convergence Culture? Is using a scoring guide, the preferred approach in writing classes, the best approach in this new context? Or, following Moss, Girard, and Haniford (2006 Moss, P., Girard, B., & Haniford, L. (2006). Validity in educational assessment. Review of research in education 30, 109–162.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), could one use outcomes to “stage a conversation” around a student's ePortfolio; if so, what might a staged conversation look like? Or what might happen if instead of using outcomes as a framework, students themselves set the terms for that conversation? Here, I consider these options, attending especially to the importance of making good judgments and of fostering learning.     

Analysis of Parent,Teacher, and Consultant Speech Exchanges and Educational Outcomes of Students With Autism During COMPASS Consultation

The significant increase in the numbers of students with autism combined with the need for better trained teachers (National Research Council, 2001) call for research on the effectiveness of alternative methods, such as consultation, that have the potential to improve service delivery. Data from 2 randomized controlled single-blind trials indicate that an autism-specific consultation planning framework known as the collaborative model for promoting competence and success (COMPASS) is effective in increasing child Individual Education Programs (IEP) outcomes (Ruble, Dalrymple, & McGrew, 2010 Ruble, L. A., Dalrymple, N. J. and McGrew, J. H. 2010. The effects of consultation on Individualized Education Program outcomes for young children with autism: The collaborative model for promoting competence and success. Journal of Early Intervention, 32: 286–301. doi:10.1177/1053815110382973[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]; Ruble, McGrew, & Toland, 2011 Ruble, L., McGrew, J. and Toland, M. Randomized controlled study of teacher training in autism. Poster session presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. August.  [Google Scholar]). In this study, we describe the verbal interactions, defined as speech acts and speech act exchanges that take place during COMPASS consultation, and examine the associations between speech exchanges and child outcomes. We applied the Psychosocial Processes Coding Scheme (Leaper, 1991 Leaper, C. 1991. Influence and involvement in children's discourse: Age, gender, and partner effects. Child Development, 62: 797–811. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01570.x[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to code speech acts. Speech act exchanges were overwhelmingly affiliative, failed to show statistically significant relationships with child IEP outcomes and teacher adherence, but did correlate positively with IEP quality.     

The positioning of adult learners: appropriating learner experience on the continuum of empowerment to emancipation

This article offers a critical analysis of discourses and power structures and the ways they operate in two instructors’ adult education and ESOL classrooms. The instructors defined learner experience in specific ways and subsequently used those definitions and drew on their learners’ experiences to define their curricula and pedagogy. They conceptualized learner experiences in ways that potentially empowered or emancipated learners from existing power structures. The data presented are part of a two‐year study of different lifelong learning and adult education contexts in the north‐eastern and mid‐western USA. Data sources included survey, interview, artifact collection, and observation methods. Data analysis was guided by a sociocultural theory of literacy development (The New London Group 1996 New London Group. 1996. A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66: 60–92. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Gee 1996 Gee, J. 1996. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in discourses , (2nd edn), London: Falmer.  [Google Scholar], 2003 Gee, J. 2003. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, New York: Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Barton and Hamilton 1998 Barton, D. and Hamilton, M. 1998. Local Literacies: Reading and writing in one community, London: Routledge. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), Holland et al.'s (1998 Holland, D., Lachicotte, W. Jr., Skinner, D. and Cain, C. 1998. Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  [Google Scholar]) theories of figured worlds and identity development, Bakhtin’s (1963 Bakhtin, M. M. 1963. Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, Edited by: Emerson, C. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. 1994 [Google Scholar], 1975 Bakhtin, M. M. 1975. The Dialogic Imagination, Edited by: Emerson, C. and Holquist, M. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1998 [Google Scholar], 1979 Bakhtin, M. M. 1979. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, Edited by: Mcgee, V. W. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1994 [Google Scholar], 1986 Bakhtin, M. M. 1986. Toward a Philosophy of the Act, Edited by: Liapunov, V. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1993 [Google Scholar]) theory of dialogism, and Foucault’s (1963 Foucault, M. 1963. The Birth of the Clinic: An archaeology of medical perception, Edited by: Sheridan‐Smith, A. New York: Vintage. 1975[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 1980 Foucault, M. 1980. Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews & other writings, 1972–1977, Edited by: Gordon, C., Marshall, L., Mepham, J. and Soper, K. New York: Pantheon. 1980 [Google Scholar]) conceptualization of power. One instructor offered her learners a chance to empower themselves, that is, to find gratification by learning to appropriate mainstream ways of acting, thinking, believing, and using text. The discourse that promotes such instructional efforts is predominant in lifelong learning and adult education. In this discourse, referred to at the outset as one of coherence, learner experience, as a resource for language and literacy development, is essentialized as dispositional, meaning that correct or proper attitudes and beliefs are necessary for empowerment. The other instructor practised a reverse discourse, or what Gee (1996 Gee, J. 1996. Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology in discourses , (2nd edn), London: Falmer.  [Google Scholar]) referred to as a liberatory literacy. She positioned learners to critique the Discourses they encountered, including those they participated in, as movement toward emancipation, toward communicative competence or a critical stance in the world. In effect, learners reversed the panoptic framework and turned the gaze back upon existing power structures. In this case, learner experience was valued for the experiential positioning it offered learners.     

Reporting Monte Carlo Studies in Structural Equation Modeling

In structural equation modeling, Monte Carlo simulations have been used increasingly over the last two decades, as an inventory from the journal Structural Equation Modeling illustrates. Reaching out to a broad audience, this article provides guidelines for reporting Monte Carlo studies in that field. The framework of discourse is set by a number of steps to be taken in such research, matching outlines of experimental design by Paxton, Curran, Bollen, Kirby, and Chen (2001) Chen, F., Bollen, K. A., Paxton, P., Curran, P. J. and Kirby, J. 2001. Improper solutions in structural equation modeling: Causes, consequences, and strategies. Sociological Methods & Research, 29: 468–508. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] and Skrondal (2000) Skrondal, A. 2000. Design and analysis of Monte Carlo experiments: Attacking the conventional wisdom. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35: 137–167. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. Throughout the article, reference is made to exemplary publications and, occasionally, to imperfect reporting.     

Informing Design Research: Learning From Teachers' Designs of Social Infrastructure

The design research methodology as it has currently developed centers on the creation of existence proofs, an important first step. What is needed then are the next steps of expanding the methodology to address the design problems of practical implementation prior to the steps involved in scaling up these designs. This article contributes to such an expansion through developing a systematic approach to learning from teachers' enactments of educational models. Design research focused on practical implementations by teachers can create knowledge regarding critical change processes, thus helping to create a theory of trajectories of change, or “implementation paths” (Bielaczyc & Collins, 2006a Bielaczyc, K. and Collins, A. 2006a. Implementation paths: Supporting the trajectory teachers traverse in implementing technology-based learning environments in classroom practice. Journal of Educational Technology, 46(2): 8–14.  [Google Scholar] Collins, Joseph, & Bielaczyc, 2004 Collins, A., Joseph, D. and Bielaczyc, K. 2004. Design research: Theoretical and methodological issues. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13: 15–42. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Here I propose using the Social Infrastructure Framework (Bielaczyc, 2006 Bielaczyc, K. 2006. Designing social infrastructure: Critical issues in creating learning environments with technology. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15: 301–329. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to analyze the design of classroom social structures by developers and teachers in order to better understand their implications for constructing implementation paths. The analytic technique is exemplified through a case study involving a particular team of teachers who worked over the course of several years to adopt a knowledge-building communities approach (Bereiter, 2002 Bereiter, C. 2002. Education and mind in the knowledge age, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Scardamalia, 2002 Scardamalia, M. 2002. “Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge”. In Liberal education in the knowledge society, Edited by: Smith, B. 67–98. Chicago, IL: Open Court.  [Google Scholar]; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991 Scardamalia, M. and Bereiter, C. 1991. Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1: 37–68. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] 1994). The results are used to discuss implications for the methodology of design research.     

THREE STRATEGIES FOR DELIVERING CONTINUING MEDICAL EDUCATION IN GERIATRICS TO GENERAL PRACTITIONERS

General practitioners (GPs) need advanced skills in geriatric assessment to be competent to treat the increasing number of elderly patients. Continuing medical education in geriatrics for GPs is heterogeneous, and not assessed for effectiveness. In this study we compared the educational effects of three geriatric post-graduate training methods on GPs. GPs in the health district of the Nijmegen University Medical Centre (The Netherlands) were offered a variety of training options in geriatric assessment: (1) a formal one-day teacher centered conference (TCC), (2) an interactive GP-centered day of workshops (GCW), and (3) participation in a project of knowledge translation, linked to a research project of geriatric intermediate care (GKT). Pre-post measures were taken of the attitudes of GPs towards the elderly (Aging Semantic Differential, 1969), attitudes towards geriatric patients (Maxwell & Sullivan, 1980 Maxwell, A. J. and Sullivan, N. 1980. Attitudes toward the geriatric patient among family practice residents. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 2(8): 341–345.  [Google Scholar]; Rosencranz & McNevin, 1969 Rosencranz, H. A. and McNevin, T. E. 1969. A factor analysis of attitudes towards the aged. Gerontologist, 9: 55–59. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and geriatric competencies (Robinson, Barry, Renick, et al., 2001 Robinson, B. E., Barry, P. P., Renick, N., Bergen, M. R. and Stratos, G. A. 2001. Physician confidence and interest in learning more about common geriatric topics: A needs assessment. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 49: 963–967. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). After training, neither the attitudes towards the elderly nor geriatric patients changed in any of the three groups. The TCC did not show a significant change in perceived competencies, while the GCW and GKT group improved. A formal large group conference is ineffective in improving GPs' geriatric assessment skills, while small interactive workshops and participation in a project of knowledge translation are equally effective. None of the three training methods improved or worsened attitudes toward the elderly in general or the geriatric patients in particular.     

Comparison of Students' Knowledge Structure Coherence and Understanding of Force in the Philippines,Turkey, China,Mexico, and the United States

This study investigates the ongoing debate in the conceptual change literature between unitary and elemental perspectives on students' knowledge structure coherence. More specifically, the current study explores two potential explanations for the conflicting results reported by Ioannides and Vosniadou (2002 Ioannides, C. and Vosniadou, S. 2002. The changing meanings of force. Cognitive Science Quarterly, 2(1): 5–62.  [Google Scholar])and diSessa, Gillespie, and Esterly (2004 diSessa, A. A, Gillespie, N. and Esterly, J. 2004. Coherence versus fragmentation in the development of the concept of force. Cognitive Science, 28: 843–900. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in terms of differences in coding schemes and differences in student populations. The current study addresses these questions by applying the coding schemes from both studies to interviews with 201 students drawn from the United States, the Philippines, Turkey, China, and Mexico. The analyses focus first on the coding schemes, suggesting that differences in coding schemes seem unlikely to account for the differences in the original studies. The analyses then focus on potential differences between student populations, suggesting that some differences exist in terms of consistency and meanings that might result from language, culture, or educational systems, but that these differences are too small to account for the radical differences in the findings of the original studies. Two additional explanations are then proposed and explored involving the instruments and the epistemological stances invoked for the students. Overall, the results align more closely with the findings of diSessa, Gillespie, and Esterly (2004 diSessa, A. A, Gillespie, N. and Esterly, J. 2004. Coherence versus fragmentation in the development of the concept of force. Cognitive Science, 28: 843–900. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). [Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Journal of the Learning Sciences for the following free supplement: Coding Schemes and Rules.]     

Benefits of Systematic Phonics Instruction

Systematic-phonics instruction appears to be more effective than nonsystematic phonics instruction for teaching reading (Ehri, Nunes, Stahl, & Willows, 2001 Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A. and Willows, D. M. 2001. Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panels meta-analysis.. Review of Educational Research, 71: 393–447. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). In the present study, a systematic phonics approach was directly compared with a nonsystematic phonics approach for kindergarten children. Both approaches were delivered using computer programs teaching the same Dutch grapheme–phoneme correspondences. Both phonics-trained groups progressed to the same extent on productive letter-sound knowledge compared to the control group. However, on measures of phonemic awareness, spelling, and reading, the systematic phonics group made more progress than the nonsystematic phonics group and the control group.     

Examination of Critical Features and Lessons Learned for Implementation of a Tier 2 Intervention System for Social Behavior

This article reviews Check-In, Check-Out (CICO; Hawken & Horner, 2003 Hawken, L., & Horner, R. (2003). Evaluation of targeted intervention within a schoolwide system of behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 225–240.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) as an intervention within a multitiered system of support. Although literature has emerged demonstrating successful intervention outcomes for a wide range of students (e.g., Campbell & Anderson, 2011 Campbell, A., & Anderson, C. M. (2011). Check-In/Check-Out: A systematic evaluation and component analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 315–326.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Hawken & Horner, 2003 Hawken, L., & Horner, R. (2003). Evaluation of targeted intervention within a schoolwide system of behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 225–240.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]), insufficient attention has focused on the administrative and organizational systems needed for high-fidelity, sustained adoption of these practices to maximize student outcomes. We address this need by demonstrating how to explicitly and systematically embed CICO into the multitiered system of supports by reviewing data, systems, and practices needed to sustain high-quality Tier 2 interventions such as CICO. One school district's systems implementation data and student outcome data are shared highlighting lessons learned during training, initial implementation, and follow-up related to CICO systems in schools. The article emphasizes the roles of school psychologists as well as the importance of collaboration with other educators in CICO implementation.     

Identifying Possible Sources of Differential Functioning Using Differential Bundle Functioning With Polytomously Scored Data

Oshima, Raju, Flowers, and Slinde (1998) Oshima, T. C., Raju, N. S., Flowers, C. P. and Slinde, J. A. 1998. Differential bundle functioning using the DFIT framework: Procedures for identifying possible sources of differential functioning. Applied Measurement in Education, 11: 353–369. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] described procedures for identifying sources of differential functioning for dichotomous data using differential bundle functioning (DBF) derived from the differential functioning of items and test (DFIT) framework (Raju, van der Linden, & Fleer, 1995 Raju, N. S., van der Linden, W. J. and Fleer, P. F. 1995. IRT-based internal measures of differential functioning of items and tests. Applied Psychological Measurement, 19: 353–368. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The purpose of this study was to extend the procedures for dichotomous DBF to the polytomous case and to illustrate how DBF analysis can be conducted with polytomous scoring, common to psychological and educational rating scales. The data set used was parent and teacher ratings of child problem behaviors. Three group contrasts (teacher vs. parent, boy vs. girl, and random groups) and two bundle organizing principles (subscale designation and random selection) were used for the DBF analysis. Interpretations of bundle indexes in the context of child problem behaviors were presented.     

The premise and promise of inquiry based mathematics in pre‐service teacher education: a poststructuralist analysis

Many teacher educators have recently implemented inquiry based instructional practices into their programs (Crawford & Deer, 1993 Crawford, K and Deer, C. (1993). Do we practise what we preach? Putting policy into practice in teacher education. South Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 21: 111–121. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; Foss & Kleinsasser, 1996 Foss, D and Kleinsasser, R. (1996). Pre‐service elementary teachers’ views of pedagogical and ­mathematical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(4): 429–442. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]; Klein, 1996 Klein M (1996) The possibilities and limitations of constructivist practice in pre‐service teacher education in mathematics Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia  [Google Scholar], 1997 Klein, M. (1997). Looking again at the ‘supportive’ environment of constructivist pedagogy. ­Journal of Education for Teaching, 23(3): 277–292. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar], 1998 Klein M (1998) New knowledge, new teachers, new times in: C. Kanes, M. Goos & E. Warren (Eds) Teaching mathematics in new times (Brisbane, Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia) 295 302  [Google Scholar], 2001 Klein M (2001) Correcting mathematical and attitudinal deficiencies in pre‐service teacher education in: J. Bobis, B. Perry & M. Mitchelmore (Eds) Numeracy and beyond (Sydney, Australia, MERGA) 338 345  [Google Scholar]; Schuck, 1996 Schuck, S. (1996). Reflections on the dilemmas and tensions in mathematics education courses for student teachers. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 24(1): 75–82. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; Tillema & Knol, 1997 Tillema, M and Knol, W. (1997). Collaborative planning by teacher educators to promote belief changes in their students. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 3(1): 29–46. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). In mathematics education the promise has been that pre‐service teachers’ socialization into new interactive ways of learning will not only lead to the (re)construction of powerful mathematical ideas and relationships, but that it will facilitate the implementation of these inquiry based practices in the classroom. This promise, however, is not often realized (Foss & Kleinsasser, 1996 Foss, D and Kleinsasser, R. (1996). Pre‐service elementary teachers’ views of pedagogical and ­mathematical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(4): 429–442. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]; Tillema & Knol, 1997 Tillema, M and Knol, W. (1997). Collaborative planning by teacher educators to promote belief changes in their students. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 3(1): 29–46. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). One reading of why this may be so, relying on and made visible through a poststructuralist analytic lens, is (a) that perhaps the pre‐service teachers’ ability to act in inquiry‐based, generative ways in the classroom does not necessarily follow from, but is produced or constituted in, teaching/learning interactions in school and teacher education, and (b) it may be that pedagogic practices in teacher education unintentionally and invisibly reproduce old epistemologies and ontologies that support knowledge transmission and teacher authority over student authored engagement and construction of ideas. In this paper the premise of a rational, autonomous agent of change on which so much of current practice is based is challenged, and the possible implications for teacher education discussed.     

The use of ‘Ethos indicators’ in tertiary education in Japan

Japanese universities’ total capacity to accommodate new entrants will reach 100% before 2009. Partly to attract students as ‘courted customers’ (Kitamura 1997 Kitamura, K. 1997. Policy issues in Japanese higher education. Higher Education, 34: 141–150.  [Google Scholar], 147), and, with a growing trend towards university accountability and assessment to meet the needs of homogeneously skilled students with diverse study backgrounds, administration of Student Evaluation of Teaching surveys (SETs) has become mandatory. This is problematic, however, as the effects of different ‘dominant cultures’ (McKeachie 1997 McKeachie, W. 1997. Student ratings: the validity of use. American Psychologist, 52(11): 1218–1225. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar], 1221) may influence students’ attitudes towards evaluation. If ratings reflect how learners feel as well as the way they think (Kulik 2001 Kulik, J. 2001. “Student ratings: validity, utility, and controversy”. In The student ratings debate: are they valid? How can we best use them?, Edited by: Theall, M., Abrami, P. and Mets, L. 9–25. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass.  [Google Scholar]; Kerridge & Mathews 1998 Kerridge, J. and Mathews, B. 1998. Student ratings of courses in HE: further challenges and opportunities. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 23(1): 71–83. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]), evaluation results may be influenced by the environment around them on the day of the administration. This questionable discriminant validity of SETs suggests the need to consider additional evaluative measures that address the potential effects of the school environment or ‘ethos’ or culture. This paper examines the dominant culture in a tertiary establishment in Western Japan through an adaptation of an ‘ethos indicators’ questionnaire (MacBeath & McGlynn 2002 MacBeath, J. and McGlynn, A. 2002. Self evaluation: what’s in it for schools?, London: RoutledgeFarmer.  [Google Scholar]). Tentative suggestions are offered for how this tool could be adapted for use in tertiary education in Japan and beyond as a counterweight to SETs. Adding another perspective to evaluation is a way to understand the effectiveness of the learning environment for student learning.     

Hierarchy and Happiness: The Influence of Emotion on Administrative Job Satisfaction

Administrative job satisfaction in higher education is influenced by intrinsic and interpersonal factors (Volkwein & Zhou, 2002 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2002 , June ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Paper presented at the Annual Forum for the Association for Institutional Research , Toronto , Ontario , Canada . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service Number ED473108)  [Google Scholar], 2003 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2003 ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Research in Higher Education , 44 ( 2 ), 149 – 171 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Pioneers of the “affect as information” hypothesis of emotion postulate that emotions provide value-laden information regarding whether goals, standards, and attitudes are impacted positively or negatively by events, agents, or objects (Clore, 1992 Clore , G. ( 1992 ). Cognitive phenomenology: Feelings and the construction of judgment . In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 133 – 163 ). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . [Google Scholar], 1994 Clore , G. ( 1994 ). Why emotions require cognition . In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions . New York : Oxford University Press . [Google Scholar]; Clore & Ortony, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988 Ortony , A. , Clore , G. , & Collins , A. ( 1988 ). The cognitive structure of emotions . New York : Cambridge University Press .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Schwarz & Clore, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This study explored the relationship between emotion and job satisfaction among community college administrators. Elevated satisfaction scores were associated with positive emotional temperaments and elevated emotional intelligence. Optimistic administrators in good moods were more satisfied than pessimistic administrators in bad moods.     

Portfolio Assessment and Quality Teaching

Our article focuses on using portfolio assessment to craft quality teaching. Extant research literature on portfolio assessment suggests that the primary purpose of assessment is to serve learning, and portfolio assessments facilitate the process of making linkages among assessment, curriculum, and student learning (Asp, 2000 Asp, E. (2000). Assessment in education: Where have we been? Where are we headed? In R. S. Brandt (Ed.), Education in a new era (pp. 123–157), Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. [Google Scholar]; Bergeron, Wermuth, & Hammar, 1997 Bergeron, B. S., Wermuth, S., & Hammar, R. C. (1997). Initiating portfolios through share learning: Three perspectives. Reading Teacher, 50, 552–562.[Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Cohen & Wiener, 2003 Cohen, J. H., & Wiener, R. B. (2003). Literacy portfolios: Improving assessments, teaching, and learning (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. [Google Scholar]; Neill & Mitchell, 1995 Neill, M., & Mitchell, R. (July, 1995). National forum on assessment: Principles and indicators for student assessment systems (Final draft). National Forum on Assessment. [Google Scholar]; O'Malley & Pierce, 1996 O'Malley, J. M., & Pierce, L. V. (1996). Authentic assessment for English language learners: Practical approaches for teachers. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. [Google Scholar]; Smith & Ylvisaker, 1993 Smith, M. A., & Ylvisaker, M. (1993). Teachers' voices: Portfolios in the classroom. Berkeley, CA: National Writing Project. [Google Scholar]; Yancey, 1996 Yancey, K. B. (1996). Dialogue, interplay, and discovery: Mapping the role and the rhetoric of reflection in portfolio assessment. In R. C. Calfee & P. Perfumo (Eds.), Writing portfolios in the classroom (pp. 83–101). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [Google Scholar]). Because a learning portfolio is a collection of student work samples over time, it provides teachers with opportunities to understand the process of student learning. This is especially important in the current educational context where teachers are expected to teach all students, including English language learners, to develop high-level thinking and content knowledge aligned with Common Core State Standards. To support teachers to provide quality teaching that meets Common Core State Standards for diverse English language learners, we begin our article with 3 important reasons for using portfolio assessment. We then describe procedures for implementing portfolio assessment in individual classrooms.