Decision training: The effects of complex instruction,variable practice and reduced delayed feedback on the acquisition and transfer of a motor skill

Novice, intermediate and advanced baseball hitters followed a 7–week training programme, in which they received either behavioural training or decision training. Participants in the behavioural training group received simple-to-complex instruction, variable practice and an abundance of feedback throughout the acquisition period; the decision training group received complex instruction, variable practice and reduced delayed feedback. As predicted, the intermediate and advanced hitters who received decision training hit at a lower level (%) during acquisition but at a higher level during a transfer test in week 7. Novices in the behavioural training group were better than novices in the decision training group over both acquisition and transfer trials.     

An analysis of practice activities and instructional behaviours used by youth soccer coaches during practice: Exploring the link between science and application

Abstract

We examined the practice activities and instructional behaviours employed by 25 youth soccer coaches during 70 different practice sessions. We evaluated the extent to which these activities and behaviours differ from those shown in contemporary research to best facilitate skill acquisition. Nine coaches worked with the under-9 years age group and eight coaches each with the under-13 and under-16 years age groups; nine of those coaches were employed at the elite level, nine at the sub-elite level, and seven at the non-elite level. Coaches had players spend more time in activities that were deemed less relevant to soccer match performance, termed “training form” (e.g. physical training, technique and skills practices), than activities deemed more relevant, termed “playing form” (e.g. small-sided/conditioned games and phase of play activities). Coaches provided high levels of instruction, feedback, and management, irrespective of the activity in which players engaged. Few differences in practice activities and instructional behaviours were reported across skill and age groups, implying the absence of any notable age- or skill-related progression. Findings are discussed with reference to recent research in the areas of skill acquisition, motor learning, and expert performance.     

The efficacy of video feedback for learning the golf swing

This study was designed to examine the efficacy of video instruction relative to that of verbal and self-guided instruction. Before training, 30 golfers were assigned at random to one of three groups: video, verbal or selfguided instruction. Video instruction was defined as a practice session in which the teacher was aided by the use of video. Verbal instruction was defined as practising with the teacher providing verbal feedback. Self-guided practice was defined as practising without the aid of a teacher. The participants had a pre-test, four 90 min practice sessions, an immediate post-test and a 2 week delayed post-test. During the pre-test and post-tests, all participants were required to strike 15 golf balls, with a 7-iron, from an artificial turf mat for distance and accuracy. The results showed that all groups were equal on the pre-test. On the first post-test, the two instruction groups performed worse than the self-guided group. However, on the second post-test, the two instruction groups performed better than the self-guided group, with the video group performing best. We interpret these results to mean that video analysis is an effective means of practice, but that the positive effects may take some time to develop.     

The efficacy of video feedback for learning the golf swing

This study was designed to examine the efficacy of video instruction relative to that of verbal and self-guided instruction. Before training, 30 golfers were assigned at random to one of three groups: video, verbal or self-guided instruction. Video instruction was defined as a practice session in which the teacher was aided by the use of video. Verbal instruction was defined as practising with the teacher providing verbal feedback. Self-guided practice was defined as practising without the aid of a teacher. The participants had a pre-test, four 90 min practice sessions, an immediate post-test and a 2 week delayed post-test. During the pre-test and post-tests, all participants were required to strike 15 golf balls, with a 7-iron, from an artificial turf mat for distance and accuracy. The results showed that all groups were equal on the pre-test. On the first post-test, the two instruction groups performed worse than the self-guided group. However, on the second post-test, the two instruction groups performed better than the self-guided group, with the video group performing best. We interpret these results to mean that video analysis is an effective means of practice, but that the positive effects may take some time to develop.     

Delayed Visual Feedback While Learning to Track a Moving Target

Abstract

Two studies investigated the effects of delayed visual feedback on manual tracking. In Experiment 1, individuals practiced with visual feedback provided either immediately (0 delay) or with a 333-ms delay. During acquisition, the 0 delay group performed with less error than the 333-ms delay group. A retention test with 0 delay feedback was performed with the least error by the 0 delay group. A transfer test using a different 0 delay tracking pattern, was performed with the least error by the 333-ms delay group. In Experiment 2, individuals practiced at six different delays. Error increased as training feedback delay increased. For retention there were no differences between the delay groups during the 0 delay retention. At a 417-ms retention, test error decreased as training feedback delay increased. Results indicate that error during acquisition does not necessarily impair learning and that feedback delays can be beneficial for learning.     

The effect of video‐feedback on the learning of the tennis service by intermediate players

Effects of video‐feedback on improvement of the tennis service were investigated in subjects having at least 2 years of playing experience in tennis. The experiment was carried out in an indoor tennis hall under normal training conditions.

Subjects were randomly divided into three groups: a video‐feedback training (VFT) group, a traditional training (TT) group and a control group, each consisting of 22 subjects. While the subjects of the control group received no training at all, subjects in both the VFT and TT groups were trained twice weekly during 5 consecutive weeks. Each training session lasted 40 min, of which 30 min was spent on actual practice in training of the service. The remaining 10 min was spent on watching, analysing and discussing video recordings of either their own service performed during the training session (VFT group), or ground strokes and volleys of top level players (TT group). Both the VFT and TT group showed significantly greater improvements in both achievement scores and form (technique) scores than did the control group. No differences, however, could be demonstrated between the VFT and TT group, indicating that the subjects of the former group did not benefit from the video‐feedback they received.

While form scores correlated significantly (P < 0.001) with the velocity of the served ball, no such relation between form scores and spatial accuracy was apparent.     

Maximizing Performance Feedback Effectiveness through Videotape Replay and a Self-Controlled Learning Environment

This study was designed to examine whether participants who could control the schedule of performance feedback (KP) would learn differentially from those who received a rigid feedback schedule while learning a complex task. Participants (N = 48) were randomly assigned to self-controlled KP (SELF), summary KP (SUMMARY), yoked control (YOKE), or knowledge of results only (KR) conditions. Data collection consisted of an acquisition phase and a 4-day retention phase during which right-handed participants performed a left-handed ball throw. Overall, throwing form improved across trial blocks during acquisition, with the SUMMARY, SELF, and YOKE groups showing more improvement than the KR group. During retention, the SELF group retained a higher level of throwing form and accuracy in comparison to the other groups. Results suggest that when given the opportunity to control the feedback environment, learners require relatively less feedback to acquire skills and retain those skills at a level equivalent to or surpassing those who are given more feedback but receive it passively.     

Visual abilities distinguish pitchers from hitters in professional baseball

This study aimed to evaluate the possibility that differences in sensorimotor abilities exist between hitters and pitchers in a large cohort of baseball players of varying levels of experience. Secondary data analysis was performed on 9 sensorimotor tasks comprising the Nike Sensory Station assessment battery. Bayesian hierarchical regression modelling was applied to test for differences between pitchers and hitters in data from 566 baseball players (112 high school, 85 college, 369 professional) collected at 20 testing centres. Explanatory variables including height, handedness, eye dominance, concussion history, and player position were modelled along with age curves using basis regression splines. Regression analyses revealed better performance for hitters relative to pitchers at the professional level in the visual clarity and depth perception tasks, but these differences did not exist at the high school or college levels. No significant differences were observed in the other 7 measures of sensorimotor capabilities included in the test battery, and no systematic biases were found between the testing centres. These findings, indicating that professional-level hitters have better visual acuity and depth perception than professional-level pitchers, affirm the notion that highly experienced athletes have differing perceptual skills. Findings are discussed in relation to deliberate practice theory.     

Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner's performance

The study follows up on the contention that self-controlled feedback schedules benefit learning because they are more tailored to the performers' needs than externally controlled feedback schedules (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002). Under this assumption, one would expect learning advantages for individuals who decide whether they want to receive feedback after a trial rather than before a trial. Participants practiced a sequential timing task, and all could decide the trials on which they received feedback. One group ("self-after") decided after every trial whether they wanted to receive feedback for that trial while another group ("self-before") made that decision before each trial The self-after group showed learning benefits on a delayed transfer test (novel absolute timing requirements) with regard to overall timing and relative-timing accuracy. Thus, self-controlled feedback was more effective when the learner could make a decision about receiving feedback after the trial. This seems to support the view that self-controlled feedback benefits learning, because learners can make a decision about feedback based on their performance on a given trial.     

基于专项化视角的花球啦啦操训练内容构建与分析

采用专家访谈法、德尔菲法和层次分析法,从专项化视角分析花球啦啦操训练内容。通过对国内外啦啦操领域的专家进行四轮问卷调查,确定花球啦啦操训练内容体系包括舞蹈基础训练、身体能力训练、专项技术训练和综合能力训练4个一级指标,12个二级指标和34个三级指标;花球啦啦操训练特征归纳为舞蹈基础多元化、身体能力全面化、专项技术特征化、综合能力整体化。初级运动技术水平侧重柔性发展和花球技术执行,中级运动技术水平侧重有氧能力训练和团队表演训练,高级运动技术水平侧重专项技术训练的团队协作训练。     

The Effect of Gradual Self-Control of Task Difficulty and Feedback on Learning Golf Putting

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of gradual self-control of task difficulty and feedback on accuracy and movement pattern of the golf putting sport skill. Method: Sixty students were quasi-randomly assigned to four groups under a varying combination of the two factors of task difficulty control (self-controlled or yoked) and feedback control (self-controlled or yoked). The participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control and self-controlled task difficulty group) that granted control over task difficulty in the acquisition phase were told they could choose any of the pre-set distances from the target. All groups were given 100% feedback in the first half of the acquisition phase, but the participants in the two groups (dual-factor gradual self-control group and self-controlled feedback) that could control their feedback were told that in the second half of the acquisition phase they would be able to ask for feedback when needed. The practice schedule of each member of the dual-factor gradual self-control group was used as a basis to plan the practice of predetermined distances and feedback presentation to the corresponding participants in the yoked conditions. Results: ANOVA with repeated measures showed that the practice method involving gradual self-control of two factors had a positive impact on accuracy and movement pattern of golf putting in the retention and transfer tests compared to other methods (p_s < .05). Conclusion: The advantages of self-control practice presumably come from better adjustment of challenge points by the learner in the course of the practice.     

The effect of video-feedback on the learning of the tennis service by intermediate players

Effects of video-feedback on improvement of the tennis service were investigated in subjects having at least 2 years of playing experience in tennis. The experiment was carried out in an indoor tennis hall under normal training conditions. Subjects were randomly divided into three groups: a video-feedback training (VFT) group, a traditional training (TT) group and a control group, each consisting of 22 subjects. While the subjects of the control group received no training at all, subjects in both the VFT and TT groups were trained twice weekly during 5 consecutive weeks. Each training session lasted 40 min, of which 30 min was spent on actual practice in training of the service. The remaining 10 min was spent on watching, analysing and discussing video recordings of either their own service performed during the training session (VFT group), or ground strokes and volleys of top level players (TT group). Both the VFT and TT group showed significantly greater improvements in both achievement scores and form (technique) scores than did the control group. No differences, however, could be demonstrated between the VFT and TT group, indicating that the subjects of the former group did not benefit from the video-feedback they received. While form scores correlated significantly (P less than 0.001) with the velocity of the served ball, no such relation between form scores and spatial accuracy was apparent.     

从建构主义的观点论个案研究在运动心理学教学中的运用

作为一种现代学习理论 ,建构主义学习理论的兴起主要是在 2 0世纪 90年代。当今的建构主义者对教学和学习作了新的解释 ,强调情境教学 ,关注复杂知识的获得与迁移以及学生学习的主动、积极性等问题。在训练运动心理学顾问中使用个案研究是一种比较新的教学方法。从建构主义学习理论的观点论述个案研究方法在运动心理学教学中的应用。     

“Three Specially Selected Athletes” and a Recapitulation of the Pennsylvania Walking Purchase of 1737

Abstract

The generality of the variability in practice prediction, arising from Schmidt's schema theory (1975) of motor learning was tested on young children. More specifically, the structure of the variability session and its subsequent influence on transfer performance to a novel variation of the task was examined. Children tossed a weighted bean bag to a fixed target location. Three groups experienced variability in practice with four bean bags of varying weights (3, 4, 5, and 6 oz.); however, the trial-by-trial presentation of each weight was different for each group. One group received a random presentation of each weight from trial to trial while another experienced random presentations of a weight for blocks of three trials. The third variability group received blocked practice with six trials per block for each weight. All variability groups experienced the same amount of practice at each weight. A constant practice group experienced only a single weight. Following 24 practice trials, all subjects transferred outside the range of previous experience, receiving three trials with one of two possible test weights (2 oz. or 7 oz.). The results indicated that the variability group practicing with blocks of three trials at each variation led to superior performance at transfer to novel variations of the task. Overall, the experiment suggested that transfer performance for children is affected by the appropriate structure of variable practice which formulates the schemata for movement production.     

Responses to Speed Changes in Coincidence-Anticipation Judgments after Extended Practice

Abstract

Coincidence-anticipation performance has been found to vary with changes in the speed of the task's stimulus. This may be due to bias effects. The present study was designed to investigate the existence of directional error, its persistence after extended practice, and its occurrence upon transfer to new contextual stimuli. Two groups of 20 women athletes each were tested for 270 trials over 3 days on a Bassin anticipation task. One group judged stimulus speeds of 2, 3, and 4 mph and the other group speeds of 2, 4, and 6 mph. Both groups improved during training, but tended to respond late, less accurately, and more variably to the slowest speed. Following a 30-trial warmup on Day 4, the second group transferred to the same speeds given the first group. Following transfer, the Transfer Group demonstrated increased directional bias to the slowest stimulus speed despite having seen this speed throughout training. By the second block of trials following transfer, however, they were performing at an error level similar to that of the Control Group. The present findings are in agreement with those concerning psychophysical judgments, and suggest that skill acquisition may be subject to bias effects if the task involves judgments of varying speeds.     

The effect of stress inoculation training on self‐reported stress,observer's rating of stress,heart rate and gymnastics performance

Eighteen volunteer female subjects received preliminary instruction in a simple gymnastics bench sequence. They were then given a pre‐intervention test on a bench at ground level. Self‐reported distress, an independent observer's ratings of distress and heart rates were monitored immediately prior to performance of the sequence. Performances were also videotaped and formally scored by a qualified gymnastics judge. Subjects were then randomly assigned to a stress inoculation training group or a ‘no stress management’ training control group. Stress inoculation group subjects then received seven sessions of training in relaxation, imagery and making self‐statements in order to develop a set of coping skills. Control group subjects also received seven training sessions during which they practised a series of coordination exercises, but no psychological stress management training was given to this group.

All subjects were then re‐tested on the bench sequence but this time at a height of 1.52 m. Self‐reported stress, observer's ratings of distress and heart rate were recorded as before. Performance was again videotaped for scoring. The stress inoculation group reported significantly less stress prior to the test on the elevated beam than the control group. However, the groups did not differ in terms of heart rate. Further, the stress inoculation group performed reliably better than the control group on the elevated bench.     

Caution regarding exergames: a skill acquisition perspective

Background: The advent of technology use in physical education is upon us. But the implications of using exergames as a substitute for traditional physical education instruction for some students raise questions. Although exergames have the potential to increase energy expenditure and motivation in some children, it is less clear whether they can provide skill acquisition benefits that are similar to those found in traditional physical education.

Purpose: In a previous experiment from our laboratory, we found that deliberate practice can significantly reduce the planning time required for lateral arm movements. The purpose of this study was to determine if exergames can produce a similar effect, by reducing the processing time required for children to initiate arm movements to the contralateral and ipsilateral space.

Participants and setting: Thirty children (boys?=?15, girls?=?15), between the ages of 7 and 12 years, participated in a pre- and post-test each taking 30?min and one 30?min treatment session in a university laboratory.

Research design: A repeated measures design was employed to test the effects of deliberate laterality practice on processing speed. Children were randomly assigned (n?=?10) to either a Nintendo Wii tennis contralateral movement experimental group, Nintendo Wii bowling ipsilateral movement experimental group, or handheld video-game control group. Each child participated in one 30?min treatment session.

Data collection: Upper extremity choice reaction time (RT) was measured through 27 goal-directed aiming movements for each arm separately, during the pre-test and post-test. The stimulus–response trials occurred in three randomly presented directions (ipsilateral, contralateral, and midline).

Data analysis: A 3 (treatment group)?×?2 (age group)?×?2 (test)?×?3 (direction) mixed design analysis of variance with repeated measures on the last two factors was used to test for significant differences, with an alpha level set at 0.05.

Findings: There were no significant treatment effects on RT across all groups indicating that a short bout of exergame training was unsuccessful in improving lateral movement processing.

Conclusions: Deliberate laterality practice using exergames did not improve the motor processing speed of lateral arm movements in the same manner of traditional physical education as indicated by our previous research. Explanations as to why exergames do not exhibit the same positive transfer for skill acquisition as traditional physical education instruction are discussed within this paper.     

Audio,Visual, and Audio-Visual Instruction with Mental Practice in Developing the Forehand Tennis Drive

Abstract

The effectiveness of mental practice was studied when combined with three variables of instruction: audio, visual, and audio-visual presentations of the forehand tennis drive. An adaptation of the Broer-Miller tennis test was administered to 183 subjects prior to and following the training sessions. Subjects were divided into six experimental groups and one control group. Of the experimental groups, one heard, one viewed, and one both heard and viewed a sound filmstrip which described the tennis drive. Three similar experimental groups received parallel instruction but also engaged in 10-min. mental practice sessions immediately following their respective presentations. All six groups met three times a week for a period of 8 weeks. The three experimental groups which also engaged in mental practice showed a significant improvement in the execution of the forehand drive. Among the variables of instruction, audio used in conjunction with mental practice proved to be the most effective method for development of the forehand tennis stroke.     

The effects of different knowledge of results spacing and summarizing techniques on the acquisition of a ballistic movement

The present study crossed three knowledge of results summarizing techniques (single-trial KR, summary KR, and average KR) with two spacing conditions (KR on every fifth trial-20%- and KR on every trial-100%). Participants (n = 10 per group) performed 80 acquisition trials of a ballistic movement task involving both a temporal and spatial goal, followed by 30 immediate (10 min) and 30 delayed (2 days) no-KR transfer trials. For the spatial goal, performance was less accurate (absolute constant error) for the 20% spacing condition than the 100% condition during acquisition, but more accurate during delayed transfer. No effects were significant for variable error. For the temporal goal, performance was more accurate for the summary and average conditions than the single-trial KR condition; however, this effect was only present within the 20% spacing condition and only during Block 1 of acquisition. A similar effect held for variable error as well, except that the effect persisted for acquisition and transfer. It was concluded that the spacing of KR is more influential in promoting spatial accuracy than the summarizing of KR.     

The effect of video-modelling and video-feedback on the learning of the tennis service by novices

This project is addressed to the effectiveness of video mediated instruction on the learning of the tennis service by novices. The research was carried out in an indoor tennis hall under normal training conditions. Three experimental groups were used: a video-model (VMT), a video-feedback (VFT) and a group with a combination of video modelling and video feedback (VMFT). Two control groups - based on different training periods-were also used: a traditional training group (TT1) which practised for a period of 45 min per training session and a second traditional training group (TT2) which practised for a period of only 30 min per training session. All subjects took part in five successive training sessions. No clear advantages of using video mediated instruction methods in teaching novices the tennis service could be demonstrated. Five sessions of 30 min practical training were shown to be as effective as five sessions of 45 min practical training in producing improvements in both form and achievement scores of novice tennis players. While, in the early stages, form and achievement scores were not shown to be significantly related, after five sessions a significant correlation (P less than 0.05) was shown.