Selecting Teaching Practice schools across social contexts: conceptual and policy challenges from South Africa

In a country like South Africa, as in many other countries around the world, there is an imperative to prepare student teachers for a wide variety of social contexts, as part of breaking the cycle of disadvantage for poor learners. This article explores the challenge of placing student teachers for their field experience in schools that differ greatly in terms of their social and educational conditions. Drawing on interviews with teacher educators at one university, the article argues that criteria for identifying suitable schools for Teaching Practice do not easily support placements in schools in difficult conditions. Conceptual models of teacher education are explored, with a view to developing a model that supports teacher preparation for diversity. Policy recommendations are offered to support the preparation of excellent teachers for all schooling contexts.     

Beginning teachers and diversity – why the need for extended critical professional support

This article draws from a qualitative study of seven beginning teachers’ perceptions of diversity over a period of 6–18 months. The study found that while initial teacher training had broadened their understanding of diversity and its implication for teaching, it was established pedagogical practices in their schools that influenced the novices’ ongoing understanding of responsiveness to learner diversity. For these novices, the influence of the structures and systems of their school contexts began to restrict their pedagogical stance. Based on the reported findings and wider research data, the article argues the need for ongoing critical professional support for beginning teachers who can deepen their understanding of learner diversity and its pedagogical implications. It underscores the importance of a genuine partnership between schools and teacher education providers to enable the continuation of critical professional support for novices, particularly in contexts where there are no mandatory links between preservice programmes and beginning teaching like New Zealand, where this study was undertaken. The author contends that it is unrealistic otherwise to expect beginning teachers not only to challenge entrenched practices but also to sustain the efforts of initial teacher education programmes in preparing them to be responsive to diverse learners.     

Student teachers’ understanding of multicultural education in public schools

Abstract

As schools in South Africa become increasingly multicultural, pressure is being put on them to meet the needs of all learners. The South African Schools Act, No 84 of 1996, affirms the recognition of all forms of diversity in public schools. It seems clear from media reports, however, that diversity in schools is not readily accepted and that teachers are largely held accountable for racial prejudice in schools. This raises the question whether teachers fully understand multicultural education as a means to adequately manage diversity in schools. Against this background, a project was undertaken to establish what student teachers’ understanding of multicultural education is, and what they regard as the most important aims of multicultural education. Data were obtained by the use of semi-structured questions serving as a self-report instrument. The data collected were consolidated and categorised into themes. It became clear from the data that most respondents showed a seriously deficient conception of the nature, aims and material manifestations of multicultural education. It is therefore recommended that teacher education programmes should be scrutinised to ascertain whether they are providing the right kind of knowledge content to prepare student teachers to function competently in multicultural schools.     

The Pedagogical Orientations of South African Physical Sciences Teachers Towards Inquiry or Direct Instructional Approaches

In recent years, inquiry-based science instruction has become widely advocated in science education standards in many countries and, hence, in teacher preparation programmes. Nevertheless, in practice, one finds a wide variety of science instructional approaches. In South Africa, as in many countries, there is also a great disparity in school demographic situations, which can also affect teaching practices. This study investigated the pedagogical orientations of in-service physical sciences teachers at a diversity of schools in South Africa. Assessment items in a Pedagogy of Science Teaching Test (POSTT) were used to identify teachers’ science teaching orientations, and reasons for pedagogical choices were probed in interviews. The findings reveal remarkable differences between the orientations of teachers at disadvantaged township schools and teachers at more privileged suburban schools. We found that teachers at township schools have a strong ‘active direct’ teaching orientation overall, involving direct exposition of the science followed by confirmatory practical work, while teachers at suburban schools exhibit a guided inquiry orientation, with concepts being developed via a guided exploration phase. The study identified contextual factors such as class size, availability of resources, teacher competence and confidence, time constraints, student ability, school culture and parents’ expectations as influencing the methods adopted by teachers. In view of the recent imperative for inquiry-based learning in the new South African curriculum, this study affirms the context specificity of curriculum implementation (Bybee 1993) and suggests situational factors beyond the curriculum mandate that need to be addressed to achieve successful inquiry-based classroom instruction in science.     

Beyond a command performance: reflections on Classmates as a new teacher preparation initiative

This paper reflects on a new pre‐service teacher education initiative, Classmates. Classmates is a collaboration between the University of Western Sydney (UWS) and the New South Wales Department of Education and Training (DET), South Western Sydney Region. Classmates aims to prepare pre‐service teachers to work in challenging, hard‐to‐staff schools. These contexts typically have socially disadvantaged populations and annually experience teacher shortages and high teacher turnover, particularly amongst beginning and early career teachers. Classmates seeks to produce beginning teachers who are highly prepared for, confident and mentally and emotionally equipped to work in such environments. This discussion focuses on some of the positive attributes about the initiative, particularly its practicum structure; its nurturing of pre‐service teachers to work in challenging contexts; and its strong focus on networking and development of ongoing support structures.     

The teacher education curriculum and the world of work: A study of teachers of disadvantaged children in Nigeria

A key element in the current attempt to actualise the goals of the Dakar Framework of Action for Education for All in Nigeria is the broadening of access to education for disadvantaged groups. These groups include: nomadic pastoralists; migrant fishermen; and out-of-school children and youth. Special educational programs are being provided for them so as, inter alia, to: integrate them into the mainstream of Nigeria's social and political life; disseminate modern occupational and life skills; and promote cultural renewal based on reconstructionist principles.The major concern of this paper is to analyse the teacher education curriculum in Nigeria vis-à-vis the concrete existential realities in which teachers of these disadvantaged groups teach. It critically examines the extent to which the curriculum prepares teachers for the world of minority children, particularly the realities of the schools and the cultural contexts within which teaching takes place. To what extent has the teacher education curriculum adequately prepared teachers for the realities and challenges of teaching disadvantaged children? What do the teachers themselves think of the training they have received? How have their experiences as teachers of disadvantaged groups influenced their sense of marginalisation, professionalism and sense of worth? These questions are posed using quantitative and qualitative strategies so as to determine the level of congruence or incongruence between the existential realities of teachers’ work and the teacher education curriculum. Finally the paper highlights the suggestions made by the teachers sampled for this study about how to reform the teacher education curriculum in order most effectively to address the peculiarities and challenges of the cultural and educational contexts in which they work.     

Pedagogical and political encounters in linguistically and culturally diverse primary classrooms: examples from Quebec,Canada, and Gauteng,South Africa

Comparative research in multilingual urban primary schools indicates that the pedagogical and political goals of schooling may operate at cross-purposes. Classroom observations and teacher interview-discussions were conducted in classes for immigrant children in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where the language of instruction is French, and in classes in Pretoria, Gauteng Province, South Africa, where children from many different language backgrounds are taught in English. Two main themes emerged: (1) pedagogically, effective teacher–learner communication can break down when teachers are unaware of the roles that language and culture play in second language classrooms; (2) politically, efforts to assimilate learners into new socio-cultural/political contexts sometimes take precedence over sound pedagogical practice, such as drawing on the linguistic and cultural repertoire that learners bring to the classroom. This ongoing qualitative research underlines the importance of preparing pre-service and in-service teachers for the linguistic and cultural diversity they are bound to encounter in their classrooms, and of deepening their understanding of the influence of such diversity on the teaching–learning process.     

Exploring equity and quality education in South Africa using multilevel models

Educational reform in South Africa envisions schooling where all students, irrespective of their background characteristics, have the opportunity to succeed. To achieve this vision, the South African education system needs to function in such a way that students’ success does not depend on their backgrounds; that is, if school processes and policies in South Africa were inclusive and supportive of the learning of all students then we would expect high-quality schools to compensate for socio-economic disadvantage such that the achievement gap associated with the socio-economic status (SES) would be minimised. The main objective of this paper is to explore the relationship between school quality and socio-economic disadvantage. Our analysis, employing multilevel statistical models, indicates that:

1. schools do make a difference over and above the socio-economic backgrounds of learners they enrol;

2. learners are most successful in schools where they and their parents are actively engaged in the learning processes;

3. schools with these characteristics tend to compensate for learners’ socio-economic disadvantage;

4. learners from disadvantaged backgrounds are less successful in schools; and

5. the impact of SES on learners’ achievement levels is particularly prominent in high-achieving schools.

These findings call for the need to rethink the current schooling processes and policies to include structures that allow schools to provide opportunities to engage learners and their parents in the schooling processes with the objective of compensating for learners’ socio-economic disadvantage. We argue that this objective can be achieved through a capability framework where inclusion, democratic participation and child centredness serve as the major principles of the provision of quality education for all.     

Activist dispositions for social justice in advantaged and disadvantaged contexts of schooling

This article advances current conceptions of teacher activism through an exploration of the social justice dispositions of teachers in advantaged and disadvantaged contexts of schooling. We interrogate the practices of teachers in a government school, with a high proportion of refugee students and students from low socio-economic backgrounds, in a high-fees, multi-campus independent school, and in a disadvantaged Systemic Catholic school to illustrate how Bourdieu’s notion of dispositions (which are constitutive of the habitus) and Fraser’s distinction between affirmative and transformative justice are together productive of four types of teacher activism. Specifically, we show that activist dispositions can be characterised as either affirmative or transformative in stance and as either internally or externally focused in relation to the education field. We argue that the social, cultural and material conditions of schools are linked to teachers’ activist dispositions and conclude with the challenge for redressing educational inequalities by fostering a transformative activism in teachers’ practices.     

Teacher Agency in South African Education Policy Related to School Safety

Abstract

Safety in and around schools is an on-going concern in South Africa. Current education policy related to school safety institutes mechanisms to reduce violence as a measure of promoting safety. The highest rate of violence reported by learners occurs in the classroom. By implication, how teachers are either enabled or constrained to respond to violent incidents in classrooms is critical. With the aim to determine how education policy related to school safety either enables or constrains teacher agency in South African education policy related to school safety, the article reports on a study that examined the mechanisms of the National School Safety Framework (NSSF) together with the context at schools. The study found that the NSSF mechanisms and school context find little enabling teacher agentic action, where learning is concerned. Although the NSSF mechanisms require teachers to perform many roles as measures of reducing violence to promote school safety, none involve pedagogic strategies or techniques. Given that teachers’ greatest challenge in the context of violence is the disruption of teaching and learning, the NSSF mechanisms are inadequate as an education policy related to school safety within the current context of insecurity in South African schools.     

Exploring inclusive pedagogical practices in Hong Kong primary EFL classrooms

Social diversity is now commonplace in many communities in today’s globalised world. This diversity can be seen in any classroom of learners, and international studies have shown the complex ways in which disabilities, race, ethnicity, gender and social class can determine a child’s opportunity to succeed or fail in the education system. In Hong Kong, like in many educational contexts around the world, teachers are grappling with increasing diversity amongst their students, including teaching students with special educational needs (SEN) and non-Chinese speaking students (NCS) living in Hong Kong. This paper examines how three primary TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) teachers are constructing identities as inclusive practitioners as they grapple with enacting the inclusive education policy recently introduced into Hong Kong schools. The data are drawn from a small-scale collaborative reflective inquiry for teacher professional development. Drawing upon a sociocultural and critical framing of identity theory, we trace the three teachers’ identity construction as EFL teachers and inclusive education practitioners. We view the role of discourse, self-positioning and social context as key processes in teacher identity formation. Implications for furthering the development of inclusive education in EFL classrooms are offered.     

Teacher educators’ professional journeys: pedagogical and systemic issues affecting role perceptions

ABSTRACT

Teacher educators in many countries share similar concerns as they aspire to improve education for learners and stimulate interest in further study and careers. The roles and professional development of school teachers have been researched, but little attention has been given to teacher educators. Using a small-scale, illuminative study in England and South Africa, this paper examines pedagogical implications of progression from classroom teacher to teacher educator-tutor. Systemic issues include attitudes to personal scholarship in moving to high stakes academic environments requiring research. In both countries, there were issues of student teachers’ subject knowledge and their capacity to translate knowledge for learners. South African teacher educators were concerned about student teachers’ lack of appreciation of the integrity of conceptual understanding and sequencing of topic content. Implications for the professional development of teacher educators and their role identities are considered.     

A Five Country Study of Gender and Sexuality Diversity and Schooling in Southern Africa

The importance of quality education provision for all is a globally acknowledged principle for the creation of sustainable learning environments at primary and secondary levels. This article reports on a study that aimed to increase understanding of the context of how gender and sexuality diversity is responded to in schools in Southern Africa. In this regard, the researchers drew on a recent five country study focusing on what the literature says about gender and sexuality diversity and schooling in Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland. Drawing on a review of reports and publications by relevant ministries, policy documents, published research, relevant statistical data, as well as the grey literature from civil society organisations, the findings indicated significant barriers to access for learners who embody non-normative gender or sexualities. The policies and schooling cultures in Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland foreground discourses that marginalize, silence and invisibilise gender and sexual minorities. The researchers argue that if educational institutions in the region are to include all learners, there must be real engagement with the ongoing realities of heterosexist exclusion and marginalisation. The findings pointed to the need for teacher education to step up efforts to prepare teachers in the region to comfortably and professionally engage with and teach about issues of gender and sexuality diversity in the classroom.     

Managing teacher retention in a rural school district in South Africa

Retaining quality teachers is a global challenge for schools, particularly those in rural districts. A nation-wide study conducted by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) found that 55 % of teachers in South Africa would leave teaching if they could. Resignation was found to be one of the three largest causes of attrition (Hall et al. Potential attrition in education: the impact of job satisfaction, morale, workload and HIV/AIDS. Report presented to the ELRC by the Human Sciences Research Council and the Medical Research Council of South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2005). This paper reports findings of a qualitative multi-case study of 15 schools in Moretele, part of a rural district—Bojanala—in the North-West province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to determine factors that influence teacher retention and the teacher retention strategies used by principals. The study also ascertained principals’ perceptions of their effectiveness in managing teacher retention. Data were collected through individual and focus group interviews of purposefully selected school principals. Findings suggest that rural schools have unique challenges that tend to militate against teacher retention. Reported barriers to teacher retention relate to the policy and procedures framework, working conditions in schools, socio-economic push–pull factors, teachers’ personal circumstances, and the role ambiguity of principals. The key recommendation made is that the staffing function as an aspect of Human Resource Management should be decentralized. School Governing Bodies must be empowered to make teacher-retention decisions and facilitate related activities of school principals.     

Context as mediator: teaching residents’ opportunity and learning in high-need urban schools

This article presents findings from an exploratory empirical study of teaching residents’ opportunities and learning within the overlapping contexts of English as a Second Language (ESL)/special education classrooms and high-need urban schools. Utilizing documentation from the first year of a teacher residency program, our findings illustrate the central role that mentor teachers play in determining the kinds of opportunities afforded to teaching residents and the ways in which factors unique to these clinical contexts shape learning. Implications center on the preparation of mentor teachers and the work of teacher education programs in the US.     

Exploring Pre-Service Teacher Development Through Daily Journal Reflections: A Case Study

This article explores the findings of a qualitative case study of journal entries by 10 finalyear English pre-service teachers during their five-week practicum in disadvantaged schools in South Africa’s Gauteng province. The study sought to investigate the nature and depth of reflection as well as student teachers’ perceptions regarding the writing of daily journal entries. It drew on socio-constructivist theory, which emphasises learning as a dialogic engagement with the source of knowledge and participants involved. Data was collected from the student teachers’ daily reflections, as evidenced by their teaching journals, and interview responses at the end of their teaching practice. Findings revealed that most of the reflections were on contextual issues and that, contrary to expectations, journal entries lacked in-depth exploration of classroom practice. The study is part of continuous course evaluation and contributes to the ongoing initiatives for improving the quality of teacher education in open distance learning (ODL).     

The tension between curriculum coverage and quality learning: The experiences of South African teachers

In South Africa, there is increasing state monitoring of curriculum coverage. This is a response both to classroom research which shows that teachers do not always cover the official curriculum in the specified year and to learners’ poor achievement in international tests. In the province of KwaZulu-Natal from 2013 to 2016, the provincial department of education embarked on a systemic reform programme called Jika iMfundo in 1200 schools, which is focused on improving curriculum management and coverage. We interviewed 29 Heads of Department (who are also teachers) in fifteen schools who had participated in the Jika iMfundo programme for these three years, asking them about their experiences. The findings show that teachers experience tension between the fast pace required by the curriculum trackers and slow pace of learners and they believe that increasing pacing to cover the curriculum hampers the quality of the learning. Teachers also said that the curriculum coverage trackers do not account for different school contexts. We argue that while the programme has provided clear curriculum guidance to teachers who need it, it has not sufficiently acknowledged the huge variation in learners’ competence. Nor has it yet enabled teachers to develop the content knowledge and the pedagogical content knowledge necessary to teach learners who are not at the same grade level (although they are in the same classroom). Curriculum coverage is a necessary, but not sufficient intervention, unless there is also a focus on pedagogy and teaching at the right level. We recommend an intervention that enables teachers to identify individual learner’s existing learning gaps, and equips them to teach at the right level in order to provide learners with opportunities to develop foundational knowledge and skills to succeed in further education, rather than one whose primary focus is only curriculum coverage.     

Ruled by hetero-norms? Raising some moral questions for teachers in South Africa

Thirty-eight countries in Africa regard homosexuality as punishable by law with South Africa remaining a standout country advancing constitutional equality on the basis of sexual orientation. In the context of homophobic violence, however, concerns have been raised about schools’ potential to improve the educational, moral and social outcomes for young people. In examining how some South African teachers normalize heterosexuality the paper raises questions about moral education in addressing homophobia. By drawing on interviews conducted with teachers across different social contexts, the paper shows how rights are limited by dominant constructions of heterosexual privilege mediated by a range of interlocking social processes including gender, race and culture. The paper argues that attention to the social and cultural influences in teachers’ account of homosexuality must feature in local designs of moral education. The imperative of working with teachers is presented as a way forward to facilitate the broadening of moral education to include an interrogation of heteronormativity which has evaded the focus of South African moral education.     

The impact of teacher professional conduct on learner experiences and performance in poor school communities in South Africa

A qualitative based study was undertaken to explore the impact of teacher professional conduct on learner experiences and performance in three poor primary schools in a disadvantaged community in Cape Town, South Africa. Data was gathered through individual and focus-group interviews, observations and document reviews. The paper uses the capabilities approach to show how teacher professional conduct impact on the aspirations of primary school learners. The paper highlights the silent role limited learning resources, contextual challenges, learner backgrounds, dysfunctional school management systems and policy play in exacerbating teacher unprofessionalism and learner unfreedoms in high-poverty-level areas. It also stresses the critical role the education system has to play in normalising teacher professional conduct by reassessing the impact of these constraints in the classroom. Teachers as part of the change process have to be accountable for their own actions and also voluntarily change their attitudes when dealing with learners.