A student team approach to teaching adolescents with special emotional and behavioral needs

Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT), an instructional technique involving student teams and learning games, is proposed as an alternative classroom structure for children with special needs. TGT and individualized instruction were compared in a school for adolescents of normal intelligence experiencing problems with human relationships and academic tasks. Students were randomly assigned to treatments. A five-category behavioral observation scale recorded student interaction and task behavior. In addition, students responded to a five-item sociometric instrument. The results confirmed hypotheses that TGT would exceed individualized instruction on students' attraction to one another, frequency of peer tutoring, and percent of time on task. A five-month followup showed former TGT students distributed among six new classes to be still interacting with their peers both on and off task more than control students.     

Quality of instruction and classroom learning outcomes: The German contribution to the IEA classroom environment study

Results of the German contribution to the Classroom Environment Study: Teaching for Learning are presented. The study explored instructional quality and classroom management factors as predictors of student cognitive and affective outcomes. Classrroms (N=39) were observed nine times with a low-inference observation instrument. Individual data on students' cognitive and affective characteristics, students' perceptions of instruction, self-reported attention, and observed time-on-task were aggregated, and the classroom was the unit of analysis. The data were analyzed with zero-order process-process and process-product correlations, multilevel analysis, communality analysis, and, as the focus of the study, causal modeling with the PLS (Partial Least Squares) technique. The causal model included, as latent variables, students' cognitive and affective entry characteristics, observed efficiency of management and quality of instruction, the student perceptions of these, students' observed time-on-task and self-reported attention, and affective and cognitive outcomes. As expected, student entry characteristics were of greatest importance for both affective and cognitive outcomes. A pattern of direct-instruction variables indicating efficient management, intensive use of time, and strong task orientation was positively related to student engagement and cognitive outcomes. Methodological questions associated with the multilevel character of the data and possible reasons for some unexpected results, for example, the nonsignificant role of instructional quality and of student engagement for cognitive outcomes, are discussed.     

Exploring the impact of written reflections on learning in the elementary mathematics classroom

The authors examined the implementation of written reflections in a Grade 4 mathematics classroom over the course of 8 weeks. Students in this case study engaged in a workshop modeled after Calkin's Writers' Workshop and within this workshop the use of writing as a reflective tool in mathematics was introduced. The authors explore how students used writing to evaluate their learning and how the teacher used the students' written reflections as a formative assessment for instructional purposes. Students' written reflections were coded and these codes were used to conduct an inductive thematic analysis. Analysis of written reflections via constant-comparison analysis was used for further differentiation. The findings show students' ability to accurately self-evaluate their problem-solving skills and highlighted students' confidence level with certain mathematical concepts. Teachers were able to use students' reflections as a place to begin conferring with a student for further clarification. The written reflections aided in instructional decisions and increased individual instruction when needed. The authors include implications for teacher practice and areas for future research.     

Teacher–student talk in Singapore Chinese language classrooms: a case study of initiation/response/follow-up (IRF)

In this article, I analyse the initiation/response/follow-up (IRF) exchanges between teachers and students in teacher-fronted instruction by using transcribed classroom data. Adopting a social constructivist position, I examine ways in which teachers construct or reduce students' learning opportunities in these communications. Furthermore, I demonstrate how language is used to serve the functions of mediation and to provide learning opportunities. Although teachers talk most of the time and control most of the turns, I argue that teachers can improve their talk and control in their fronted instruction to optimise student contributions and to facilitate students' learning.     

The Relationship between Students' Connections to Out‐of‐School Experiences and Factors Associated with Science Learning

This study examined the relationship between students' out‐of‐school experiences and various factors associated with science learning. Participants were 1,014 students from two urban high schools (secondary schools). They completed a survey questionnaire and science assessment describing their science learning experiences across contexts and science understanding. Using multilevel statistical modelling, accounting for the multilevel structure of the data with students (Level 1) assigned to teachers (Level 2), the results indicated that controlling for student and classroom factors, students' ability to make connections between in‐school and out‐of‐school science experiences was associated with positive learning outcomes such as achievement, interest in science, careers in science, self‐efficacy, perseverance, and effort in learning science. Teacher practice connecting to students' out‐of‐school experiences was negatively associated with student achievement but has no association with other outcome measures. The mixed results found in this study alert us to issues and opportunities concerning the integration of students' out‐of‐school experiences to classroom instruction, and ultimately improving our understanding of science learning across contexts.     

State-mandated accountability as a constraint on teaching and learning science

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of state-mandated policy, emphasizing control through performance-based instruction and student test scores as the basis for determining school accreditation, on the teaching and learning of science. The intended consequence of instigating the rational theory of management by one state is to improve their current level of student literacy. However, some contend that the implementation of the policy has results that are not intended. The identification of the tension between the intended and unintended results of centralized policy making is the basis for examining a specific case in which the rational model is implemented. One hundred and sixty-five seventh-grade science students and four teachers are participants in the study. Qualitative analysis is the research methodology used as a means to provide detailed information about the contextual nature of the classroom processes. The intention is to identify and describe features of the behavior setting that influence the behavior of the teachers and their students. Three assertions generated during the field work were: Teachers redefine the goals of science instruction as the acquisition of facts and isolated skills, teachers alter their usual instructional behavior to implement uniform instructional procedures, and the teacher/student classroom interaction constrains students' opportunities to learn science. The implications of the study indicate that the state-mandated policy has results that are in opposition to the intended results. Instead of improving the practices of teachers, the implementation of the policy constrains and routinizes the teachers' behavior, causing them to violate their own standards of good teaching. They feel pressured to “get through” the materials so students will score well on tests. The classroom interaction is structured in such a way as to inhibit students from asking questions of their own. As a result, students' opportunity to express curiosity and inquiry—central processes in scientific thinking—are constrained. These unintended consequences of the implemented state policy, instead of improving science teaching and learning, continue to reduce science instruction to the literal comprehension of isolated facts and skills.     

The defining features of teacher talk within autonomy-supportive classroom management

Classroom management practices were studied in middle school classrooms with positive interpersonal classroom climates, high levels of student engagement, and high levels of autonomy support. Students' motivational responses to autonomy-supportive instructional interactions were explored to understand variability within classroom management practices identified and described in this study as providing autonomy support. Our findings suggest proactive classroom management is enacted through instructional interactions wherein teachers scaffold students' autonomous self-regulatory capacities that sustain student engagement in classroom activities by supporting students' strategy use, transferring responsibility to students, encouraging students' to structure physical and social contexts to support learning, and promoting prosocial behavior.     

Relationships among informal learning environments,teaching procedures and scientific reasoning ability

Informal learning experiences have risen to the forefront of science education as being beneficial to students' learning. However, it is not clear in what ways such experiences may be beneficial to students; nor how informal learning experiences may interface with classroom science instruction. This study aims to acquire a better understanding of these issues by investigating one aspect of science learning, scientific reasoning ability, with respect to the students' informal learning experiences and classroom science instruction. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in students' scientific reasoning abilities relative to their informal learning environments (impoverished, enriched), classroom teaching experiences (non-inquiry, inquiry) and the interaction of these variables. The results of two-way ANOVAs indicated that informal learning environments and classroom science teaching procedures showed significant main effects on students' scientific reasoning abilities. Students with enriched informal learning environments had significantly higher scientific reasoning abilities compared to those with impoverished informal learning environments. Likewise, students in inquirybased science classrooms showed higher scientific reasoning abilities compared to those in non-inquiry science classrooms. There were no significant interaction effects. These results indicate the need for increased emphases on both informal learning opportunities and inquiry-based instruction in science.     

Evaluating students' science notebooks as an assessment tool

The idea of using science notebooks as a classroom assessment tool is not new. There is general agreement that science notebooks allow teachers to assess students' conceptual and procedural understanding and to provide the feedback students need for improving their performance. In this study we examined the use of science notebooks as an unobtrusive assessment tool that can also be used by individuals outside the classroom (for example, school district personnel), and as a means for obtaining information about students' learning and their opportunities to learn. More specifically, in this study students' science notebooks were used as a source of data about the (a) implementation of a curriculum's intended activities, (b) students' performance, and (c) quality of teachers' feedback. Our results indicated that: (1) Students' science notebooks can be reliably scored. Unit implementation, student performance, and teacher feedback scores were highly consistent across raters and units. (2) High and positive correlations with other performance assessment scores indicated that the student performance score can be considered as an achievement indicator. And (3) low performance scores across the two units revealed that students' communication skills and understanding were far away from the maximum score and did not improve over the course of instruction during the school year. This result may be due, in part, to the fact that no teacher feedback was found in any of the students' notebooks across the six classrooms studied. This may reflect some characteristics of the teachers' assessment practices that may require further professional development.     

Identifying Science Understanding for Functional Scientific Literacy

Students' questions play an important role in meaningful learning and scientific inquiry. They are a potential resource for both teaching and learning science. Despite the capacity of students' questions for enhancing learning, much of this potential still remains untapped. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to examine and review the existing research on students' questions and to explore ways of advancing future work into this area. The paper begins by highlighting the importance and role of students' questions from the perspectives of both the learner and the teacher. It then reviews the empirical research on students' questions, with a focus on four areas: (1) the nature and types of these questions; (2) the effects of teaching students questioning skills; (3) the relationship between students' questions and selected variables; and (4) teachers' responses to, and students' perceptions of, students' questions. Following this, some issues and implications of students' questions for classroom instruction are discussed. The paper concludes by suggesting several areas for future research that have significant value for student learning.     

Teachers' experiences of effective strategies for managing classroom misbehavior in Hong Kong

This study interviewed twelve teachers to examine their perceptions of effective strategies for managing classroom misbehavior in Hong Kong. Results showed seven effective strategies (rules-setting, hinting, directive statements, punishment, after class talks, relationship building, and instructional engagement) to (i) control student behavior while nurturing students' responsibility for managing one's behavior, (ii) forge a good relationship conducive to cultivating student trust and positive behavioral changes, and (iii) engage the students in learning which in turn thwarts misbehavior. The findings reflected the deeply-rooted Chinese Confucian values, and highlighted an integration of discipline, guidance and teaching strategies for effective classroom management.     

“Tjaa,I Do Have Ears,But I Do Not Hear”: New Literacy Studies and the Awakening of a Hearing Teacher

To address the low literacy achievement of minority students, the sociocultural movement of the New Literacy Studies (NLS) encourages us to expand on current understandings of literacy. Instead of thinking of literacy as a neutral set of skills transferable from one setting to another, NLS researchers encourage us to contextualize literacy within individuals’ social and cultural realms. In this view, there are multiple literacies. As a literacy teacher of students who are deaf, I have witnessed students struggling with school-based literacy learning. As I began to examine what I was doing within the classroom, I realized that my assumptions about literacy instruction were the main source of students' struggles. In this study I explore how I used the theoretical perspective of the NLS to expand my understanding of literacy. The findings suggest that, in order to base literacy instruction on students' resources, teachers need to learn to negotiate conflicting educational Discourses on reading and writing, to create a space within the classroom for students to bring in their literacy practices, and to recognize and preserve students' agency and identity in their learning. Findings also indicate the vital role of writing in deaf students' learning of Icelandic.     

Learning through Teaching: Challenges and Opportunities in Facilitating Student Learning in Food Science and Nutrition by Using the Interteaching Approach

ABSTRACT: Interteaching is a new pedagogical strategy for classroom instruction that demonstrates great effective student learning outcomes in the field of psychology. It is a 20 to 30 min student‐to‐student discussion addressing the main points in a specified body of reading materials. Interteaching includes elements such as reciprocal peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and problem‐based learning. These elements have been well theorized and their effectiveness has been empirically documented. To date, little is known about the effects of interteaching on students' perceived learning outcomes in food science and nutrition. This case study describes how the interteach method was employed in an undergraduate nutrition and food science course with specific examples of the tools used, such as interteach preparation guides, the interteach record form, and the peer assessment form. Based on the continuous feedback provided by the students during the course work, several specific modifications were made from the conventional interteaching methods, including 4‐person interteaching instead of one‐on‐one interteaching, as well as the use of in‐class thought‐provoking “synthesis” questions. At the end of the course, we assessed the students' perceptions of interteaching, as well as the students' perceived learning outcomes. The method generally fostered critical thinking and enhanced their motivation, which led to their perceived learning. On the other hand, some of the students expressed challenges in learning from peers due to their peers' varied preparation levels, as well as tackling complex scientific concepts prior to lectures. Further investigation is needed to develop possible strategies for accommodating the challenges among students with different learning styles.     

The effects of token reinforcement versus cognitive behavior modification on learning-disabled students' math skills

The effects of token reinforcement, cognitive behavior modification, and direct instruction on learning-disabled students' math skills were compared. Math skills were measured by 2-minute classroom timings of basic addition and subtraction problems, and the Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test. Treatment was provided to 94 students for 4 weeks in daily 1-hour sessions. Significant differential gain between treatment and direct instruction groups in achievement test scores was found, F(4, 182) = 4.03, p<.01. Token reinforcement and cognitive behavior modification were found to be equally effective. All three groups improved with 2-minute classroom timings, F(2, 91) = 8.53,p<.001. Retention of skills for both treatments was maintained over a 2-week no-treatment period. Teachers' social validity ratings indicated differences between the two treatments relative to student behaviors and teacher roles. It is concluded that token reinforcement and cognitive behavior modification are equally effective techniques to remediate learning-disabled students' math achievement, and both are superior to direct instruction in some cases.     

Why do students exhibit different attention-related behavior during instruction? Investigating effects of individual and context-dependent determinants

To determine the success of their instruction, teachers need to rely on observable cues in students' behavior. However, students exhibit different attention-related behavior within one lesson as well as compared with their peers. It is not yet clear to what extent these differences result from the design of classroom instruction and how individual and contextual factors determine students' behavior during instruction. In the present study, we applied a continuous behavior-rating system to 10 classroom videos and based our analysis on 1200 1-s intervals of N = 199 students. Using dynamic structural equation modeling, students' attention-related behavior was primarily determined by contextual factors, stressing the important role of teachers but also the impact of factors that are unique in individual classrooms.