Helping grandkin—Grandchildren raised by grandparents: Expanding psychology in the schools

Recently, large numbers of grandparents have become full-time surrogate parents to their grandchildren. The term “grandfamily” was coined to easily identify families in which children are raised by grandparents. Grandchildren in these families are called “grandkin.” Grandparents who raise their grandkin tend to have elevated levels of stress that negatively impact their well-being. Grandkin tend to develop problems with attachment and establishing social networks, which can lead to poor psychological adjustment and development. Grandparents who raise their grandchildren significantly influence the development of their grandkin in the school environment. Often the children experience severe academic and behavioral problems in school. This article provides a review of the literature about grandkin and grandparents in grandfamilies, particularly as the relationship influences the children's school functioning. In addition, the Grandfamily School Support Network is discussed as a means of ameliorating the difficulties experienced by grandkin and grandparents. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Grandparent Involvement in the Communication Development of Children Who are Deafblind

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of grandparents in the communication development of children who are deafblind. The two-tiered study was conducted through State Projects for Deafblind Children in Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee with 143 parents and 80 grandparents. The grandparents identified as “most involved” provided information about factors that influence their levels of involvement. The results suggest that maternal grandparents are the most involved. A needs analysis in areas of communication, nurturing, and school indicated the need for grandparents to be included as participants in developing communication plans.     

学前儿童、家长与学前教师角色的历史与现状

从心理学的角度看来,我国学前教育面临的许多困难源自于对学前儿童、家长与学前教师的角色认识不清。本文通过梳理我国学前儿童、家长与学前教师社会角色的历史和现状,为理解目前学前教育遇到的困难提供帮助。研究发现在中国传统社会中,父母,且主要是母亲承担教育和养护的责任,儿童服从父母的管教并尽孝（主要是对母亲）;现代中国教育和养护的责任由父母、祖父母、学前教师共同承担,各主体的角色相较传统社会更具矛盾性。     

Diverse Experience of Immigrant Children: How Do Separation and Reunification Shape Their Development?

Although many immigrant children to the United States arrive with their parents, a notable proportion are first separated and later reunited with their parents. How do the experiences of separation and reunification shape the well-being of immigrant children? Data were from a national survey of legal adult immigrants and their families, the New Immigrant Survey from 2003 to 2004 (for academic achievement, age 6–12, N = 876; for psychosocial well-being, age 6–17, N = 1,084). Results indicated that immigrant children who were once separated from their parents exhibited poorer literacy and higher risk of emotional and behavioral problems than those who migrated with parents. A protracted period of separation and previous undocumented status of parents amplified the disadvantages experienced by these children.     

Contact With Grandparents Among Children Conceived Via Donor Insemination by Lesbian and Heterosexual Mothers

Objective. This study compared the networks of extended family and friendship relationships of children conceived via donor insemination with lesbian versus heterosexual parents. Design. Eighty families participated; 55 of the families were headed by lesbian parents and 25 were headed by heterosexual parents. Parents reported their children's contact with grandparents and other important adults. Results. Most children had regular contact with grandparents, other relatives, and adult nonrelatives outside their immediate households, and there were no differences in this regard as a function of parental sexual orientation. Both children of lesbian and heterosexual parents had more frequent contact with the parents of their biological mother than with the parents of their father or other mother. Conclusions. Contrary to negative stereotypes, children of lesbian mothers were described as having regular contact with grandparents. Regardless of parental sexual orientation, children were described as being in more frequent contact with grandparents to whom they were biologically linked.     

Teachers' perceptions of the emotional and behavioral functioning of children raised by grandparents

Increasing numbers of grandparents are becoming full‐time surrogate parents to their grandchildren. Grandparents who raise their grandchildren reportedly endure high levels of stress, and grandchildren purportedly experience childhood trauma that can lead to poor psychological adjustment. While anecdotal reports have suggested that grandchildren experience significant behavioral problems, there is a dearth of data to empirically support this view. This research was an initial endeavor to ascertain whether teachers perceive children raised by grandparents as exhibiting serious emotional and behavioral problems. Fifty‐four African American children raised by their grandparents and a comparison group of 54 African American children living with their parents were studied to determine the grandchildren's functioning. Teachers perceived the children raised by their grandparents as experiencing significantly more emotional and behavioral problems than their similar schoolmates. Children in these families appear in need of school‐based intervention services. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 565–572, 2006.     

Grandparents of Children with Disabilities: a review

Grandparents are important sources of support to children with disabilities and their families. However, there has been very little published research concerned with grandparents’ roles and experiences in relation to their grandchild with disabilities. Existing research is reviewed in the present paper. Although both parents and grandparents themselves report a wide range of supportive activities and increased involvement with the child with disabilities, grandparents may also be an additional burden to families. In particular, parents may find it difficult to deal with grandparents’ immediate and longer term emotional responses to their grandchild's disability. Clinical, educational, and other professionals have an important role to play working with grandparents and facilitating their role as a resource for families of children with disabilities. The implications of the review for research on grandparents are also discussed.     

Social participation of children and adolescents with cochlear implants: a qualitative analysis of parent, teacher, and child interviews

Psychosocial factors, including socioemotional well-being, peer relationships, and social inclusion with hearing and deaf peers, are increasingly becoming a focus of research investigating children with cochlear implants. The study reported here extends the largely quantitative findings of previous research through a qualitative analysis of interviews with parents, teachers, and pediatric cochlear implant users themselves in three eastern states of Australia. We interviewed 24 parents, 15 teachers, and 11 children and adolescents. The findings displayed commonalities across the three groups of participants, indicating positive experiences around the children's psychosocial development with their cochlear implants, but also ongoing difficulties communicating in groups of people and problems related to social skills. Some children had little contact with other deaf children (with or without cochlear implants) despite parents and teachers perceiving such contact beneficial. Children attending schools where there were other deaf children valued friendships with both deaf and hearing peers. Adolescence was a particularly difficult time for some as they struggled with feelings of self-consciousness about their deafness and external cochlear implant equipment and worries around friendships, dating, and their future place in the world. Recommendations for practice and further research are made.     

Accessing mainstream: examining the struggle for parents of children who have learning difficulties

In the past decade Ireland has witnessed substantial changes in policy and provision for children with general learning difficulties as government policies and legislation increasingly underpin the move towards more inclusive provision. Despite this series of policy initiatives parents of children who experience Down syndrome and general learning difficulties can encounter serious obstacles in gaining access to mainstream education for their children.
This research project was a study of the experiences of a small sample of parents of children who experience Down syndrome and general learning difficulties in relation to their efforts to access appropriate education and education supports for their child in the mainstream school setting. These parents had to invest extraordinary levels of time, energy, and resources in their struggle to get these children into mainstream school and to support their progress there. At local school level these parents and children had positive experiences, but life has taught them that society offers acceptance as a favour, so they cannot confidently expect acceptance by schools and teachers as a right.     

Family Processes and Psychosocial Problems of the Young Korean Gifted

It is widely known that Korean parents have a high aspiration for providing opportunities of higher education and high expectations for their children’s academic achievement. Young Korean gifted children with ages from four to ten years did not show many psychosocial problems. However, some showed such problems as distractibility and inattentiveness, aggressiveness, helplessness, or psychiatric symptoms, when parents exert pressure, fathers are not involved in education, or parents do not discipline children’s behavior. Korean young gifted children showed high motivation for learning, when parents provide support, help, and supervision on TV watching. Based on the results, it was suggested that parents provide support for learning, rather than pressure on learning, and discipline their children’s behavior when they are young. In addition, fathers need to be more involved in their children’s learning in order to prevent psychosocial problems of the young gifted.     

Parental Sexual Orientation and Children's Psychological Well-Being: 2013–2015 National Health Interview Survey

Debate persists about whether parental sexual orientation affects children's well-being. This study utilized information from the 2013 to 2015 U.S., population-based National Health Interview Survey to examine associations between parental sexual orientation and children's well-being. Parents reported their children's (aged 4–17 years old, N = 21,103) emotional and mental health difficulties using the short form Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Children of bisexual parents had higher SDQ scores than children of heterosexual parents. Adjusting for parental psychological distress (a minority stress indicator) eliminated this difference. Children of lesbian and gay parents did not differ from children of heterosexual parents in emotional and mental health difficulties, yet, the results among children of bisexual parents warrant more research examining the impact of minority stress on families.     

Grandparents—the overlooked potential partners: perceptions and practice of teachers in special and regular education

The unique contribution of grandparents to families of children with and without disabilities is often overlooked in the clinical and empirical literature. Perceptions and practice of teachers regarding grandparents were examined. Eighty‐two special education teachers and 80 teachers from regular classes completed a 30‐item questionnaire tapping perceptions of structural and functional aspects of grandparents’ support to parents, and actual practice with grandparents. Results show that, on the whole, few differences were found between special and regular education. Although teachers acknowledge the significant and stable role that grandparents play, they rarely translate this to actual practice. Moreover, more than half the teachers showed no interest in acquiring more professional training in this area. The findings present a challenge to educators and policy‐makers to be more attentive to the significant family resource of grandparents that is currently practically ignored.     

Aunts,Uncles—Nieces,Nephews: Kinship Relations Over the Lifespan

Aunts and uncles play special roles in the lives and education of nieces and nephews. They are among the first adults children meet other than parents and grandparents. They are often willing and able to fulfill roles that strengthen the relationship with a niece or nephew, especially if they have never married. The roots of the relationship, coupled with a shared history and comparable values may, as a result, provide the basis for generalized reciprocity of support as the aunt (uncle) ages.     

The relative safety of paternal,maternal, and traditional foster care placements

When children are placed into foster care the caseworker must give preference to an adult relative, many of whom are grandparents, over an unrelated caregiver. This kinship preference is based in evolutionary biology, which suggests that the imperative to care for a child should be greater for kin versus non-kin. However, not all kin are related to a child in the same way, and level of paternity uncertainty may influence level of care provided. For instance, maternal grandparents can be assured that they share genetic material with their grandchild, while paternal grandparents may not have the same level of certainty. Owing to the possibility of paternity uncertainty, we hypothesize that out-of-home placements with paternal grandparents will be at a greater risk of subsequent investigations than placements with maternal grandparents or with foster parents. We secured data on placements n = 560 of children ages 1.5 to 17 following a maltreatment investigation from a merger of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being NSCAW II and the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System NCANDS. Kaplan-Meier and multivariate Cox regression were used to examine the difference in time to the first new investigation by type of out-of-home placement while controlling for covariates. Consistent with our hypothesis, placements with paternal grandparents were at a higher risk of a subsequent investigations than placements with maternal grandparents or non-kin foster parents. Results suggest a need for further considerations of child safety in foster care based on genetic relatedness of caregivers.     

What emotional-centred challenges do children attending special schools face over primary–secondary school transition?

Primary–secondary school transition encompasses multiple social, academic and environmental changes which can negatively impact children’s emotional well-being. Children with Social, Emotional and Mental Health difficulties (SEMH) are believed to be especially vulnerable during this time. However, the voices of children with SEMH are heavily underrepresented in this field within practice and research. The present case study examined how children with SEMH difficulties within one special school experience primary–secondary school transition and how they are supported, in order to make recommendations to improve this period. The case study was qualitative and longitudinal, conducted over 18-months and methodologies included ethnographic observations, child photo-elicitation focus groups (with 11 Year 6 children) and three adult interviews. Findings demonstrated that over primary–secondary school transition children with SEMH difficulties (a) negotiate significant structural changes in support (often unanticipated) and (b) need to feel a sense of safety and belonging. To manage this effectively, transition provision for children with SEMH difficulties needs to consider their short-term emotional well-being whilst still in primary school, in addition to their long-term well-being looking ahead to secondary school. Greater collaboration and communication across schools and stakeholders can help ensure children receive continuity in standards and support.     

隔代教育与城市学龄前儿童社会化

随着经济的发展,隔代教育成为一种重要的社会现象。在城市中,父辈面对激烈的竞争压力,学龄前儿童的教育主要由祖辈来承担。本文试图从隔代教育与社会化的相关概念出发,了解并分析研究价值。从祖辈、父辈、儿童三个角度分析隔代教育中存在的问题,最后提出城市儿童隔代教育优化的途径,进而促进儿童的健康成长和发挥家庭在儿童社会化过程中作用。     

Epilepsy in school‐aged children: more than just seizures?

Epilepsy is the most common neurological disorder in childhood and can have a significant impact on a child's schooling. Children with epilepsy may have special educational needs due to having learning disability, specific learning difficulties, specific cognitive deficits or having symptoms associated with ASD, ADHD, depression or anxiety. These difficulties are often under‐recognised due to the emphasis placed on the management of seizures. The effects of seizures and side‐effects of anti‐epileptic medications (AEDs) can also influence classroom learning. The significant stigma associated with epilepsy can influence attitudes towards affected children and impact on self‐esteem. Interventions to support children with epilepsy should focus on epilepsy management, learning and behavioural interventions and whole‐school psychosocial interventions. Epilepsy is a spectrum condition and for some children the effects on schooling will be minimal but for others significant supports will be needed. Therefore, an individualised approach within the school environment and close collaboration between teachers, parents and medical professionals are essential in order to meet the children's needs.     

Beyond parent education: the impact of extended family dynamics in deaf education

The impact of childhood deafness on family dynamics, with particular attention given to the influence and role of grandparents, is discussed. Models for the successful involvement of parents in the education of deaf children are already in place and can be applied to extended family, especially grandparents, with promising results. An informal questionnaire focusing on grandparents' support, involving 10 hearing parents of deaf infants and preschool children, is reviewed.     

浅谈幼儿早期教育问题与反思

在过去一段时间里,中国的教育存在一个主要的特点,即父母外出工作,祖辈带孩子。例如我们幼儿园早教班的60多名2~3岁的幼儿,98%的孩子父母外出工作没有精力照顾孩子,孩子主要是由祖辈抚养。而长辈仍然存在传统的教育观,普遍对孩子较为溺爱,孩子在家总是衣来伸手,饭来张口。在这种环境中,孩子极易养成以自我为中心的个性。本文以此为背景对孩子的早期教育问题提出建议及反思,以期使家庭教育得到进一步的完善。