A Meta-Analysis of the Factor Structure of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)

Abstract

The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) has been used extensively to measure teacher-student interactions and classroom quality. With a theoretical foundation rooted in the developmental theory of learning, CLASS has three primary domains—Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support. In this study, we performed a meta-analysis of the factor structure of CLASS using Cheung’s two-stage structural equation modeling (TSSEM) approach. After searching the literature, we obtained 26 correlation matrices of the 10 dimensions shared by multiple versions of CLASS. This meta-analysis supports the three-factor model initially proposed by CLASS developers. The finding of this meta-analysis provides important evidence pertinent to the CLASS factor structure and has significant implications regarding the interpretation and use of CLASS scores.     

Role strain,engagement and academic achievement in early adolescence

The present study was designed to investigate the relationships between role strains following the transition to secondary school and academic achievement. Academic engagement was hypothesized to mediate between role strain and achievement. The sample consisted of 749 students in their first year of secondary school. Four types of role strain were investigated: parent, teacher, school and peer. Parent and teacher role strains appeared to be negatively associated with academic achievement, as mediated through academic engagement. Parent and school role strain were directly and negatively associated with achievement. Results are discussed in the light of parenting practices and the developmental mismatch hypothesis.     

Personal and collective perceptions of social support: Implications for classroom engagement in early adolescence

The present study uses multilevel modeling to understand early adolescents’ individual and class-level perceptions of social support in relation to their behavioral and emotional engagement in math and science. To capture individual relationships, we examined students’ self-perceptions of classroom social satisfaction, best friend quality, and teacher-student relatedness. Between classrooms, we considered collective perceptions of peer and teacher support. Participants were 761 fifth (n = 412) and sixth grade (n = 349) students nested within 44 classrooms who were 52% female and ethnically diverse. Results indicated that both peer and teacher relationships are important for early adolescents’ behavioral engagement, but teachers play a primary role in shaping emotional engagement toward subject-area content. Moreover, both individual and classroom-level indicators of perceived support explained variation in children’s engagement outcomes, highlighting the complex nature of classroom social relationships that necessitate teachers’ consideration.     

School context,achievement motivation,and academic engagement: A longitudinal study of school engagement using a multidimensional perspective

This longitudinal study adopts a multidimensional perspective to examine the relationships between middle school students' perceptions of the school environment (structure support, provision of choice, teaching for relevance, teacher and peer emotional support), achievement motivation (academic self-concept and subjective task value), and school engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Participants were from an ethnically diverse, urban sample of 1157 adolescents. The findings indicated that student perceptions of distinct aspects of the school environment contributed differentially to the three types of school engagement. In addition, these associations were fully or partially mediated by achievement motivation. Specifically, student perceptions of the school environment influenced their achievement motivation and in turn influenced all three types of school engagement, although in different ways. Moderation effects of gender, ethnicity, and academic ability were also discussed.     

Evaluating student engagement and experiential learning in global classrooms: A qualitative case study

The global classroom is an emerging technology-based pedagogy used internationally by educational institutions. To evaluate a global classroom, we conducted a qualitative study using written reflections and semi-structured interviews of global classroom participants, based on two theoretical frameworks: Kearsley and Shneiderman’s engagement theory and Kolb’s experiential learning theory. We analyzed student reflections and transcribed interviews, using the software package, NVivo, with two objectives: (1) to evaluate if global classroom is engaging and experiential to students and (2) to elucidate how student engagement is fostered in the global classroom through experiential learning. Results illustrated a complex relationship between student engagement and experiential learning. During the experiential learning cycle, engagement theory (relate-create-donate) principles contributed to student engagement at varying levels and for different purposes. Based on the results of this study, we created a framework that demonstrates the interactivity of engagement theory and experiential learning theory to describe how student engagement featured in experiential learning during this global classroom, with strategies to maximize student engagement in experiential learning.     

A longitudinal assessment of college student engagement in good practices in undergraduate education

The purpose of this study was to determinewhether student engagement in three goodeducational practices (cooperation with peers,active learning, faculty-student interaction)increased between 1983 and 1997 in response tothe calls to improve the quality ofundergraduate education in the United States.The data source was 73,050 students whocompleted the College Student ExperiencesQuestionnaire. The results from multipleregression and effect size analyses showed thatthe frequency of involvement in these goodpractices did not change over time. Variationin the scores of the three indicators acrossyears and types of institution(doctoral-granting universities, comprehensiveuniversities, liberal arts colleges) wasminimal indicating a stable pattern with onlyrandom fluctuations during this 15 yearperiod.     

A Validation of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System in Finnish Kindergartens

Research Findings: This study examined the validity and reliability of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; R. C. Pianta, K. M. La Paro, & B. K. Hamre, 2008) in Finnish kindergartens. A pair of trained observers used the CLASS to observe 49 kindergarten teachers (47 female, 2 male) on two different days. Questionnaires measuring teachers' efficacy beliefs, exhaustion at work, and classroom interactional style (i.e., affection, behavioral control, and psychological control) were completed by the teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that when the item measuring Negative Climate was excluded, the 3-factor solution assuming three positively correlated latent factors (i.e., Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support) described classroom quality well. The CLASS also showed high item and scale reliabilities. Evidence for concurrent validity was indicated by the positive association between observed classroom emotional support and teacher-rated affection and self-efficacy. Teacher-rated affection was also associated with observed classroom organization. Practice or Policy: The findings provide support for the CLASS as a valid and reliable measure of classroom quality in kindergartens and in cultural contexts outside the United States.     

Examining the effect of class size on classroom engagement and teacher–pupil interaction: Differences in relation to pupil prior attainment and primary vs. secondary schools

It is widely recognized that we need to know more about effects of class size on classroom interactions and pupil behavior. This paper extends research by comparing effects on pupil classroom engagement and teacher–pupil interaction, and examining if effects vary by pupil attainment level and between primary and secondary schools. Systematic observations were carried out on 686 pupils in 49 schools. Multilevel regression methods were used to examine relationships between class size and observation measures, controlling for potentially confounding factors like pupil attainment. At primary and secondary levels smaller classes led to pupils receiving more individual attention from teachers, and having more active interactions with them. Classroom engagement decreased in larger classes, but, contrary to expectation, this was particularly marked for lower attaining pupils at secondary level. Low attaining pupils can therefore benefit from smaller classes at secondary level in terms of more individual attention and facilitating engagement in learning.     

Technology-Enhanced Formative Assessment: A Research-Based Pedagogy for Teaching Science with Classroom Response Technology

Classroom response systems (CRSs) are a promising instructional technology, but most literature on CRS use fails to distinguish between technology and pedagogy, to define and justify a pedagogical perspective, or to discriminate between pedagogies. Technology-enhanced formative assessment (TEFA) is our pedagogy for CRS-based science instruction, informed by experience and by several traditions of educational research. In TEFA, four principles enjoin the practice of question-driven instruction, dialogical discourse, formative assessment, and meta-level communication. These are enacted via the question cycle, an iterative pattern of CRS-based questioning that can serve multiple instructional needs. TEFA should improve CRS use and help teachers “bridge the gap” between educational research findings and practical, flexible classroom strategies for science instruction.

Student engagement with science in early adolescence: The contribution of enjoyment to students’ continuing interest in learning about science

Recent research has expanded understanding of the contribution of emotions to student engagement and achievement. Achievement emotions can be conceptualized as general ways of responding to achievement settings or specific emotional states aroused during a specific learning activity. Emotion processes can be distinguished as positive or negative, activating or deactivating. Using data from an international survey of science achievement (PISA 2006; N > 400,000 15-year-old students from 57 countries), relations between the positive, activating achievement emotion of enjoyment and a number of variables that combine with enjoyment to define students’ engagement with learning science are examined. Previously, we reported that enjoyment is central to relations between interest in science, value and knowledge, and students’ reported current and future engagement. The embedded attitudinal items from PISA 2006 allow testing of how enjoyment contributes to a more direct measure of engagement with science by assessing students’ interest in finding out more about the specific topics used to measure their science achievement. In this investigation, structural equation modeling is used to test predictions based on Hidi and Renninger’s (2006) four-phase model of interest development, and Pekrun’s (2006) control-value theory of achievement emotions.     

The Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS): Preliminary reliability and validity of a system for observing preschoolers’ competence in classroom interactions

This paper introduces the Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS), an observation tool that targets children's interactions in preschool classrooms with teachers, peers, and tasks. In particular, initial evidence is reported of the extent to which the inCLASS meets the following psychometric criteria: inter-rater reliability, normal distributions and adequate range, construct validity, and validity. These initial findings suggest that the inCLASS has the potential to provide an authentic, contextualized assessment of young children's classroom behaviors. Future directions for research with the inCLASS are discussed.     

A Preliminary Validity of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System in Norwegian Lower-Secondary Schools

Observations seem particularly susceptible to rater error due to the level of subjectivity involved in assessment. Thus, the present paper aims to investigate: (1) inter-rater agreement (IRA) using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System – Secondary version (CLASS-S) and (2) the CLASS-S factor structure in a Norwegian context. Inter-rater agreement analysis comprise percent within one (PWO). Confirmatory factor analysis are performed to analyze the factor structure. Certified trainers scored videotaped observations. The study indicates that an acceptable IRA can be achieved in a Norwegian setting, and it reports promising results regarding the structural validity of the CLASS-S.     

Adolescents' daily sense of school connectedness and academic engagement: Intensive longitudinal mediation study of student differences by remote,hybrid, and in-person learning modality

In spring 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic thrust nearly 56 million students in the United States into remote education. By fall 2020, states' and school districts' differing public health measures resulted in the adoption of varying COVID-adapted learning modalities (i.e., in-person, remote, and hybrid). Using daily diary data with a nationally representative sample (N = 517, M_age = 14.65 years), we investigated whether adolescents' academic engagement and connectedness to their teachers and classmates differed by COVID-adapted learning modalities. We also assessed whether adolescent connectedness mediated the link between learning modality and academic engagement. Results revealed that academic engagement and connectedness to teachers and classmates were higher for in-person learners than for students in hybrid and remote learning modalities. Moreover, students’ connectedness to classmates and teachers explained the relationship between learning modality and academic engagement.     

The role of teaching practices in the development of children’s interest in reading and mathematics in kindergarten

This study examined the extent to which teaching practices observed in kindergarten classrooms predict children’s interest in reading and mathematics. The pre-skills in reading and mathematics of 515 children were measured at the beginning of their kindergarten year, and their interest in reading and mathematics were assessed in the following spring. A pair of trained observers used the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM; Stipek & Byler, 2004) to observe the teaching practices used by 49 kindergarten teachers. The results revealed that in classrooms in which the teachers placed greater emphasis on child-centered teaching practices than on teacher-directed practices, the children showed more interest in reading and mathematics.     

Classroom assessment in the eyes of Chinese primary mathematics teachers: A review of teacher-written papers

In this paper we report on a review of papers written by teachers aimed at knowing more about teachers’ perceptions of the current situation of classroom assessment in primary mathematics education in China. The review is based on 266 papers included in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure database. We found that the teacher-authors reflected various aspects of their classroom assessment practice, including the purpose of assessment, the content of it, the person who is the assessor, the assessment methods that are used, and the feedback that is provided. Most attention was paid to feedback; it seems many teacher-authors considered classroom assessment to be equivalent to feedback. In general, the conceived classroom assessment practice as described in the papers echoed well nearly all aspects that are advocated in the Chinese mathematics curriculum standards. The only aspect that was scarcely discussed in the papers was the use of assessment results to adapt and improve instruction.     

智能时代课堂变革图景:智慧课堂及其构建策略

智能时代对课堂变革提出新要求,澄明智能技术“何以能”及“如何能”促进学生智慧发展的逻辑理路是开展智慧课堂实践的认识论前提。文章在分析智慧课堂内涵的基础上,首先,提出了课堂学习的物质实践观,即学习可以理解为是一种学习者以物质技术手段为中介的认知性实践,学习者使用物质技术手段的水平能反映其学习实践水平;其次,通过剖析智慧课堂学习方式、场域要素构成,揭示了课堂场域支持学生智慧发展的微观逻辑,构建了反映“智慧生成”及“技术优化”逻辑的智慧课堂模型;最后,提出了智慧课堂构建策略,包括聚焦学生智慧的多元高阶发展、建立问题解决的智慧生成效应、发挥智能技术的优化调节效应。以此,为智慧课堂教学实践提供理论借鉴及实践参照。     

融错：课堂教学再生长的基点

“融错”是把课堂教学中差错融化为一种教学资源的教学艺术过程。课堂错误在教学中在所难免,但它是一种激智启慧的美丽错误,教师只有明确融错在新课改下教学再生长的学习心理学意义,树立依靠融错来促进课堂教学的思想,才能使融错真正成为课堂教学再生长的基点。     

中学语文课堂教学结构艺术辨证谈

语文课堂教学是一门艺术，只有尊重艺术规律，把握矛盾的主导方面，才能最大限度地发挥艺术的审美潜能。对读和写的关系、对讲与练的关系等问题如果能从辩证法的高度去处理，便能使有限的语文课创造出最大的价值，这应该是每一个有进取的老师追求的最高目标。     

教学之主阵地:未来课堂研究

课堂作为实施教学活动的主阵地,是人们研究任何教学环境最重要的对象之一。忽略对课堂的研究,任何教学与课程的改革与提升都是无法有效实现的。文章提出的未来课堂概念,是将课堂视为教与学活动的主阵地,力图从理论与实践层面来探究未来课堂应该具备哪些重要特征,尤其是关注未来课堂的人本性、生态性、智能性、混合性,开放性、互动性等多个维度,同时涉及未来课堂的物理架构、标准规范、互动方式以及教与学模式等方面的探究。     

多媒体课堂教学的设计和实施

从选取和组织教学内容以及注重教学内容的演绎过程,利用计算机的显示功能和尽可能让计算机多“表现“等方面,介绍了多媒体课堂教学的设计和实施.