First steps into understanding teachers' visual perception of classroom events

Student-teachers struggle to become competent at classroom management. To do so, Berliner (2001) and Feldon (2007) argue for the significance of speedy and accurate recognition of relevant cues for teacher action in the classroom. However, studies investigating how teachers obtain this information from the classroom are scarce. This study employed eye-tracking methodology to investigate teachers' visual perception and detection of classroom events. Results show that experienced teachers process visual information faster, and consistently check up on pupils more regularly. Also they are able to distribute their attention evenly across the classroom. Recommendations for future research and practical implications are discussed.     

Examining teacher ethical dilemmas in classroom assessment

The current spotlight on assessment in education raises ethical issues as practices evolve. This study documents ethical conflicts faced by teachers in the United States regarding assessment of students. Critical incidents generated by practising teachers revealed a majority of reported conflicts related to score pollution, and conflicts frequently arose between teachers’ perceptions of institutional demands and the needs of students. The most frequently mentioned assessment topics causing conflict included grading, standardised testing, and special populations. These findings suggest that explicit guidelines for defining and avoiding unethical behaviour would be helpful to teachers in developing their assessment practices.     

Changing approaches to classroom assessment: An empirical study across teacher career stages

Research indicates that there is considerable variability in teachers' approaches to assessment resulting in different learning cultures for students. The primary purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between teachers' approaches to assessment across a set of dimensions (including their conceptions of assessment purposes, processes, fairness, and measurement theory) and career stage. The results of this paper illustrate nuanced impacts of career stage on teachers' approaches to multiple dimensions of assessment and enable the generation of assessment profiles that provide empirical support for differences in teachers’ approaches to assessment both within and between career stages.     

Exploring the relationship between certification sources,experience levels,and classroom management orientations of classroom teachers

Teachers continue to report that classroom management is one of their greatest challenges in the classroom. Classroom management involves teacher's efforts to oversee classroom activities such as learning, social interaction, and student behavior. In this study, we examined the relationship between sources of teachers’ certification (traditional or alternative), teachers’ experience levels (experienced or novice), and teachers’ classroom management orientations (interventionist, non-interventionist, or interactionalist). We discovered that neither source of certification nor experience level alone impacts a teachers’ classroom management orientation. However, teachers with traditional certification and many years of experience exert significantly less control over classroom activities and students’ behaviors than do their colleagues with other educational and experimental backgrounds. Potential causes and ramifications of these findings are discussed.     

Ethics in classroom assessment practices: Issues and attitudes

Student evaluations should “be ethical, fair, useful, feasible, and accurate” [JCSEE (2003). The student evaluation standards. Arlen Gullickson, Chair. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin]. This study focuses on defining ethical behavior and examining educators’ ethical judgments in relation to assessment. It describes the results from a web-based survey of educators in which they read a brief scenario and indicated whether the student evaluation practice in the depiction was ethical or unethical. Results showed strong agreement among the educators on fewer than half of the scenarios presented in this study. These findings suggest that assessment is currently an educational realm without professional consensus.     

A framework for classroom assessment,learning, and self-regulation

ABSTRACT

We present a conceptual framework that leverages synergies between classroom assessment (CA) practices and self-regulated learning (SRL) theory to support academic growth and instruction. We articulate the processes shared by CA and SRL, drawing on a model of SRL with three phases: forethought, performance, and self-reflection. We blend this SRL model with CA to create the CA:SRL framework in four stages: (1) pre-assessment, (2) the cycle of learning, doing, and assessing, (3) formal assessment, and (4) summarizing assessment evidence. We elucidate how SRL processes are involved at each stage and can be drawn on to support learning development and teacher understanding and co-regulation of learning. This framework is important in that it depicts how assessment and learning processes interact dynamically for both teachers and students in classrooms, and demonstrates that such interactions encompass the full breadth of purposes in CA, from planning through summation of evidence.     

Assessment of preschool classroom practices: Application of Q-sort methodology

This paper reports on the application of Q-sort methodology to the development of the Preschool Classroom Practices (PCP) Q-sort. The PCP Q-sort was tested in a sample of 66 preschool teachers and assistants. Results demonstrated the existence of a 2-cluster structure within the Q-sort, comprised of Cognitive Development Activities and Socioemotional Development Activities. Specific properties of the PCP Q-sort, including cluster means, demonstrated consistency across both samples and time. Preschool teachers reported engaging in significantly more Socioemotional Development Activities than Cognitive Development Activities. Relationships to classroom observational measures are presented. Application of the PCP Q-sort as a measure of classroom practices and implications for preschool curriculum are discussed.     

Towards an articulation of expert classroom practice

We report on a small scale study with six experienced teachers of mathematics in which we have applied a general theoretical model of expert practice (developed by the second author) to explore the nature of the knowledge base that enables teachers to operate effectively in the complexity of a class of 30 pupils. This model uses the notion of attention-dependent knowledge, which is derived through the use of specialised attentional skills. A methodology was developed which enabled us both to investigate the role of attention-dependent knowledge and to develop a basic vocabulary to articulate aspects of expert classroom practice.     

Testing the effectiveness of classroom formative assessment in Dutch primary mathematics education

Classroom formative assessment (CFA) is considered to be a fundamental part of effective teaching, as it is presumed to enhance student performance. However, there is only limited empirical evidence to support this notion. In this effect study, a quasi-experiment was conducted to compare 2 conditions. In the treatment condition, 17 teachers implemented a CFA model containing both daily and weekly goal-directed instruction, assessment, and immediate instructional feedback for students who needed additional support. In the control condition, 17 teachers implemented a modification to their usual practice. They assessed their students’ mastery of learning goals on the basis of half-yearly mathematics tests, and prepared weekly pre-teaching sessions for groups of low-achieving students. The posttests showed no significant differences in student performance between the 2 conditions after controlling for student and teacher characteristics. The degree of implementation of the CFA model, however, appeared to be positively related to the 5th-grade students’ performance.     

Teacher self-efficacy and self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management: A multilevel perspective on the role of school characteristics

In the present study, we consider teachers' self-efficacy as indicator for teacher motivation on the teacher level and at the school-level. We examine the interplay of teachers' individual self-efficacy (subscales classroom management and instruction) with school-level efficacy and more-external school characteristics (collaboration, instructional leadership, and participation) when predicting teachers' self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management. Austrian TALIS 2018 data from 4255 teachers at 246 schools were analyzed. Multilevel analyses revealed relationships between teachers' self-efficacy and self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management both, at the teacher and school levels. For self-reported cognitive activation, no significant context effect or cross-level interaction was found. Classroom management differed depending on whether a teacher was situated in a low- or a high-efficacy school (context effect). Also, teacher collaboration moderated the association of teachers’ self-efficacy and their self-reported classroom management (cross-level interaction). The findings indicate the importance of addressing the school context when investigating teacher self-efficacy.     

Developing beliefs about classroom motivation: Journeys of preservice teachers

This paper examines the developing beliefs about classroom motivation of eight preservice teachers during teacher education. The framework conceptualises the contexts in which preservice teachers participate and the filtering effect of prior beliefs. Qualitative analyses of multiple data sources reveal two distinct trajectories in the development of beliefs about classroom motivation. The findings highlight the importance of filtering prior beliefs, alignment and conflict of ideas, significance of self-motivating factors and power of emotions in developing beliefs about classroom motivation. Implications emphasize the importance of enabling preservice teachers examining existing beliefs and integrating these with learning during teacher education.     

Pedagogical renewal: Improving the quality of classroom interaction in Nigerian primary schools

This study reports on an investigation of classroom interaction and discourse practices in Nigerian primary schools. Its purpose was to identify key issues affecting patterns of teacher–pupil interaction and discourse as research suggests managing the quality of classroom interaction will play a central role in improving the quality of teaching and learning, particularly in contexts where learning resources and teacher training are limited. The study was based on the interaction and discourse analysis of video recordings of 42 lessons and 59 teacher questionnaires from 10 States, drawn mainly from the north of Nigeria. The findings revealed the prevalence of teacher explanation, recitation and rote in the classroom discourse with little attention being paid to securing pupil understanding. The wider implications of the findings for improving the quality of classroom interaction in Nigerian primary schools through more effective school-based training are considered.     

Knowing the intentions,meaning and context of classroom assessment: A case study of Singaporean teacher's conception and practice

With the articulation of new ‘Holistic and Balanced Assessment’ initiatives in Singaporean schools, a new standard of conceptualising and enacting classroom assessment is expected of Singaporean teachers. This paper draws on findings from a larger study of ‘high-achieving’ Singaporean teachers’ deliberations and transactions of assessment activities. The use of case studies as a central methodology to investigate a contemporary phenomenon of education assessment extends the studies of conceptions and implementation of new classroom assessment practices in Anglophone and Western European countries. The findings from one of the ‘high-achieving’ case-study Singaporean teachers reveal that any quality assurance framework or guideline for evaluating teachers’ assessment practices needs to be sensitive to their intentions, meaning and context of teaching.     

A systematic review of prerequisites for implementing assessment for learning in classroom practice

Although many researchers acknowledge that Assessment for Learning can significantly enhance student learning, the factors facilitating or hindering its implementation in daily classroom practice are unclear. A systematic literature review was conducted to reveal prerequisites needed for Assessment for Learning implementation. Results identified prerequisites regarding the teacher, student, assessment and context. For example, teachers must be able to interpret assessment information on the spot, student engagement in the assessment process is vital, assessment should include substantial, constructive and focussed feedback, and the school should have a school-wide culture that facilitates collaboration and encourages teacher autonomy. The results of this review contribute to a better understanding of the multiple facets that need to be considered when implementing Assessment for Learning, from both a theoretical and a practical standpoint.     

Dynamics of classroom motivation: Teacher enthusiasm and the development of math interest and teacher support

Interest is important for successful student learning, but little is known about the developmental dynamics between interest and social support in classrooms. Based on the stage-environment fit theory, this study investigated the interrelation of developmental changes in student class-level interest and perceived teacher support in mathematics classes over one school year after the students transitioned to secondary school. We also examined how teacher-reported enthusiasm was related to these changes. Data of 1000 students (53.6% male) and their classroom teachers (N = 42), who were surveyed at the beginning of Grades 5 and 6, were analyzed. The results showed a significant decline in class-level mathematics interest and perceived teacher support. Teacher-reported enthusiasm buffered the decline in class-level mathematics interest. When including bidirectional relationships between perceived teacher support and the students’ interest, perceived class-level teacher support in Grade 5 positively predicted the change in student interest and, thus, buffered the decline.     

Personal and collective perceptions of social support: Implications for classroom engagement in early adolescence

The present study uses multilevel modeling to understand early adolescents’ individual and class-level perceptions of social support in relation to their behavioral and emotional engagement in math and science. To capture individual relationships, we examined students’ self-perceptions of classroom social satisfaction, best friend quality, and teacher-student relatedness. Between classrooms, we considered collective perceptions of peer and teacher support. Participants were 761 fifth (n = 412) and sixth grade (n = 349) students nested within 44 classrooms who were 52% female and ethnically diverse. Results indicated that both peer and teacher relationships are important for early adolescents’ behavioral engagement, but teachers play a primary role in shaping emotional engagement toward subject-area content. Moreover, both individual and classroom-level indicators of perceived support explained variation in children’s engagement outcomes, highlighting the complex nature of classroom social relationships that necessitate teachers’ consideration.     

Pre-service teachers’ episodic memories of classroom management

This study focused on past excellent teachers’ classroom management strategies from the perspective of 148 pre-service teachers. The purpose of the study was to examine how pre-service teachers’ memories reflect classroom management models that are typically taught in teacher education coursework prior to their study of those models, as well as to explore memories that did not fit a particular model. Results indicated that pre-service teachers related episodes that clustered on establishing rules, but were less likely to relate experiences based on other strategies such as withitness, smooth transitions, or formal classroom meetings. Implications for teacher education are explored.     

Examining the effect of class size on classroom engagement and teacher–pupil interaction: Differences in relation to pupil prior attainment and primary vs. secondary schools

It is widely recognized that we need to know more about effects of class size on classroom interactions and pupil behavior. This paper extends research by comparing effects on pupil classroom engagement and teacher–pupil interaction, and examining if effects vary by pupil attainment level and between primary and secondary schools. Systematic observations were carried out on 686 pupils in 49 schools. Multilevel regression methods were used to examine relationships between class size and observation measures, controlling for potentially confounding factors like pupil attainment. At primary and secondary levels smaller classes led to pupils receiving more individual attention from teachers, and having more active interactions with them. Classroom engagement decreased in larger classes, but, contrary to expectation, this was particularly marked for lower attaining pupils at secondary level. Low attaining pupils can therefore benefit from smaller classes at secondary level in terms of more individual attention and facilitating engagement in learning.     

The impact of teacher preparation on responses to student aggression in the classroom

Despite advances in the development and implementation of school-based interventions, aggression in American schools remains a significant problem for educators. The present study examines the influence of teacher preparation on responses to classroom aggression. A sample of 121 teachers employed in 11 public schools across Southwest Virginia completed measures of teaching characteristics and responded to vignettes depicting student aggression. Multiple regression analyses were used to evaluate the process by which teachers respond to classroom aggression, and the moderating influence of teacher training. Results confirmed the importance of prior training in supporting classroom management. Implications are discussed as they relate to relevant models and recent clinical and educational research initiatives.     

Preparing preservice teachers to make instructional decisions: An examination of data from the teacher work sample

The purpose of this American study was to examine student teachers’ ability to make instructional decisions as they engaged in teaching. We examined the narrative accounts provided by 150 student teachers within their teacher work samples (TWSs). Results indicated that most student teachers were able to implement some aspects of instructional decision making, such as noting a specific difficulty with student learning and making an on-the-spot adjustment in their instruction. However, other elements of instructional decision making were less likely to be implemented. For example, student teachers relied on a limited range of formative assessment strategies and instructional modifications, and very few provided a sound rationale for their choice of modification. These results suggest that novice teachers may benefit from more opportunities to reflect and critique upon authentic learning experiences as they complete their teacher preparation programs. Finally, the TWS appears to represent a viable method for examining the instructional decisions of student teachers.