Inhibitory Control as a Contributor to Conscience in Childhood: From Toddler to Early School Age

In this article we report a longitudinal extension of previous findings about the critical role of temperamental inhibitory or effortful control as the contributor to developing conscience in young children. A comprehensive observational battery, highly internally consistent, was developed to measure inhibitory control in 83 children at early school age who had been followed since toddlerhood and had been assessed using similar batteries at toddler and preschool age. We again confirmed the findings of robust longitudinal stability of inhibitory or effortful control, now from toddler to early school age, the increase with age, and gender differences, with girls outperforming boys. We also reaffirmed strong links, both contemporaneous and in the longitudinal sense, between in hibitory control and multiple, diverse measures of children's conscience at early school age, including observations of moral conduct, moral cognition, and moral self. The findings are discussed in view of the increasingly appreciated importance of temperament for critical aspects of socialization.     

Mutually Responsive Orientation between Mothers and Their Young Children: Implications for Early Socialization

Parent-child mutually responsive, binding, reciprocal orientation, or a system of reciprocity has been implicated as fundamental in socialization, particularly by Maccoby, but it remains poorly understood. In this study, two posited components of such orientation, mother-child shared cooperation with each other and mother-child shared positive affect, were measured in multiple contexts of daily interactions using a combination of micro and macroscopic behavioral coding systems, subsequently aggregated. Mothers' self reports were also used. Two implications of thus conceptualized mutually responsive orientation were examined: mothers' use of power in disciplinary interactions and children's degree of internalization of maternal rules, both assessed using multiple observational and mother-reported measures. Mothers and children were studied twice, when children were 26–41 months (Time 1, N = 103), and when they were 43–56 months (Time 2, N = 99). In the dyads high on the mutually responsive orientation (particularly those who maintained such orientation throughout early childhood), mothers resorted to less power and children were more internalized regarding maternal values and rules, in the contemporaneous and longitudinal sense. Mothers high on empathic perspective taking were more likely to establish a system of reciprocity with their children. The importance of such systems for social development is discussed.     

A Longitudinal Study of the Roots of Preschoolers' Conscience: Committed Compliance and Emerging Internalization

The focus of this study is the complex relation between compliance and internalization in childhood. It is a replication and a longitudinal extension of earlier work, where we distinguished between 2 forms of compliance: committed, when the child eagerly embraced and endorsed the mother's agenda, and situational, when the child was cooperative, but lacked the sincere commitment and feeling of internal obligation. 99 children, seen previously at 26–41 months, were studied again at 43–56 months. Compliance and internalization were assessed in multiple observational contexts and using maternal reports. As at toddler age, the 2 forms of compliance had distinctly different developmental trajectories, and again, only committed compliance was significantly associated with measures of internalization. Moreover, committed but not situational compliance at toddler age predicted internalization at preschool age. Shared positive affect within the mother-child dyad at toddler age predicted some measures of internalization at preschool age. Further evidence of significant differences in children's compliance to maternal "dos" versus "don'ts" is reported.     

Preterm Children at Early Adolescence and Continuity and Discontinuity in Maternal Responsiveness from Infancy

Patterns in mother-child interaction from infancy to age 12 were investigated in a prospective, longitudinal study of 44 English-speaking mothers and their preterm children. Maternal responsiveness was assessed by home observations during infancy and the Family Interaction Q-Sort at age 12, derived from 2 structured laboratory situations requiring cooperation of mother and child. A cluster of maternal behaviors of critical control toward the toddler was assessed at age 2 years. Children of mothers who were consistently more responsive during both infancy and early adolescence, as well as children whose mothers became more responsive by age 12, achieved higher IQ and arithmetic scores, had more positive self-esteem, and their teachers reported fewer behavioral and emotional problems than children of mothers who were consistently less responsive both during infancy and at age 12. Continuity in parenting behaviors was related to control and criticism beginning in the toddler period and not to degree of responsiveness to the infant.     

Mother-child discourse, attachment security, shared positive affect, and early conscience development

The separate literatures on parental discipline, maternal discourse about emotion, and autobiographical memory support the idea that parent-child discourse in the context of a supportive relationship plays a role in a child's early conscience development, and this study was designed to examine this issue. Forty-two preschool children and their mothers took part in a 45-min structured laboratory session, and at their homes, mothers completed the Attachment Q-Set. As part of the laboratory session, each mother was asked to discuss with her child one incident that occurred within the last week in which her child behaved well and one in which her child misbehaved. These conversations were transcribed verbatim and coded for maternal references to feelings, rules, consequences of the child's actions, and moral evaluatives. Each child also took part in a behavioral measure of internalization and several compliance tasks, and mothers completed a maternal report of the child's early conscience development. Consistent with attachment theory, attachment security predicted maternal and child references to feelings and moral evaluatives. Attachment security, shared positive affect between the mother and child, and maternal references to feelings and moral evaluatives also predicted specific aspects of early conscience development.     

The Fate of Early Experience Following Developmental Change: Longitudinal Approaches to Individual Adaptation in Childhood

2 strategies were used to investigate the continued impact of early experience and adaptation given subsequent experience and/or developmental change in a poverty sample (N = 190). Groups were defined whose adaptation was similar during the preschool years but consistently different earlier; then these 2 groups were compared in elementary school. In addition, a series of regression analyses was performed in which variance accounted for by near-in or contemporary predictors of adaptation in middle childhood was removed before adding earlier adaptation in subsequent steps. Children showing positive adaptation in the infant/toddler period showed greater rebound in the elementary school years, despite poor functioning in the preschool period. Regression analyses revealed some incremental power of early predictors with intermediate predictors removed. The results were interpreted as supporting Bowlby's thesis that adaptation is always a product of both developmental history and current circumstances. While this research cannot resolve such a complicated issue, it does point to the need for complex formulations to guide research on individual development.     

Mother-child relationships,teacher-child relationships,and school outcomes in preschool and kindergarten

This research examines relations between measures of child-mother and child-teacher relationships and the extent to which these measures predict early school outcomes. Observations of shared affect and control problems in mother-child interaction in preschool were low-to-moderately correlated with concurrent pre-school teacher-reported aspects of child-teacher security, conflict, and dependency. Overall quality of child-mother interaction predicted teacher-reported social adjustment in kindergarten, and quality of both child-mother and child-teacher interaction predicted children's performance on a measure of concept development in preschool. Results suggest that qualities of child-mother interaction are more strongly related to preschool and kindergarten adjustment outcomes than are qualities of the child-teacher relationship. The results point to the strength of adult-child interactions in the context of the family when understanding the role of relationships with children and teachers in the school context.     

Maternal parenting and children's conscience: early security as moderator

Socialization research is shifting from direct links between parenting and children's outcomes toward models that consider parenting in the context of other factors. This study proposed that the effects of maternal responsive, gentle parenting on child conscience are moderated by the quality of their relationship, specifically, early security. A 2-process model of early conscience development was proposed and confirmed in this longitudinal study. The child's security and trust in the caregiver, assessed at 14 months in the Strange Situation, rendered him or her receptive and eager to accept the caregiver's socialization agenda. That early security then enhanced the effectiveness of parental adaptive parenting style, observed from 14 to 45 months, in terms of promoting conscience at 56 months, which encompassed moral conduct, moral cognition, and moral self.     

Mother-child and father-child mutually responsive orientation in the first 2 years and children's outcomes at preschool age: mechanisms of influence.

Mechanisms accounting for the effects of mutually responsive orientation (MRO) at 7, 15, and 25 months in 102 mother-child and father-child dyads on child internalization and self-regulation at 52 months were examined. Two mediators at 38 months were tested: parental power assertion and child self-representation. For mother-child relationships, the causal pathway involving power assertion was supported for both outcomes. Diminished power assertion fully mediated beneficial effect of mother-child MRO on internalization and partially mediated its effect on self-regulation. For father-child relationships, MRO predicted self-regulation, but the mediational paths were unsupported. Paternal power assertion correlated negatively with both outcomes but was not a mediator. Although MRO with both parents correlated with child self-representation, and it correlated with self-regulation, this mediational path was unsupported.     

Building Literacy Links for Young Children

Well-chosen and wisely shared literature facilitates transitions and builds bridges in the lives of young children. Literature links are discussed and books are reviewed for infant, toddler, preschool, and primary age children and transitional readers.     

Examining the Black-White achievement gap among low-income children using the NICHD study of early child care and youth development

The Black–White achievement gap in children’s reading and mathematics school performance from 4½ years of age through fifth grade was examined in a sample of 314 lower income American youth followed from birth. Differences in family, child care, and schooling experiences largely explained Black–White differences in achievement, and instructional quality was a stronger predictor for Black than White children. In addition, the achievement gap was detected as young as 3 years of age. Taken together, the findings suggest that reducing the Black–White achievement gap may require early intervention to reduce race gaps in home and school experiences during the infant and toddler years as well as during the preschool and school years.     

当代学校道德教育的社会使命

学校是社会的良心,在面对当今社会人们"良知的遮蔽"时,学校道德教育要履行促进学生体认良知的社会使命。但是,学校道德教育在践履其社会使命的过程中却陷入了困境,其出路在于要充分把握其对"良知遮蔽"的意义,直击和破解"良知的遮蔽"。而"性善论"视角下对"良知"的充分理解,则更加有助于学校道德教育社会使命的践履。     

Predictability of observed mother-child interaction from preschool to middle childhood in a high-risk sample

This study examined predictability of observed parent-child interaction from preschool to middle childhood in 283 mother-child dyads. Participants were welfare recipients enrolled in the Observational Study of the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training Program. Structured observational sessions were conducted both at preschool age and middle childhood, and were coded for maternal social behavior, child social behavior, and dyadic interaction. Analyses explored direct relations between the assessments; relations between the assessments with possible third-variable influences, such as maternal literacy, covaried out; and moderated relations. Results indicated that observed mother-child interaction in middle childhood could be significantly predicted from observed interaction 4 years earlier. Risk status moderated the relations such that those families with greater risk factors tended to show more stability, although this stability was, at times, through maintaining suboptimal functioning.     

Patterns of service use in preschool children: correlates, consequences, and the role of early intervention

This article explores service use broadly by examining the mix of educational, health, and psychosocial services that preschool children received in the fifth year of life. The sample included 869 children who participated in the Infant Health and Development Program, an early intervention program designed to evaluate the efficacy of a comprehensive early intervention for low-birth-weight, premature infants during the first 3 years of life and who were followed until age 5. Cluster analyses of services at age 5 yielded 4 service groups--basic health only (doctor visits; n = 114); basic health and educational services (doctor visits and school/preschool; n = 444); basic health, educational, and psychosocial services (or multiple services; doctor visits, school/preschool, and psychosocial services; n = 129); and specialized health and educational services (doctor visits, school/preschool, emergency room visits and special medical visits [ear and/or eye examinations]; n = 182). Results suggest that neonatal health conditions, maternal education at the time of the child's birth, child developmental status at age 3, and maternal health, family income, and insurance status at age 5 were associated with patterns of services at age 5. Patterns of use are consistent over time (the first 3 years of life to the 5th year of life). After covarying the correlates of the service patterns, participation in the early intervention was not associated with patterns of services at age 5, and service patterns were associated with child well-being (health, school readiness, mental health), but results differed by intervention status. Findings are discussed in terms of preventive, responsive, and deficit models of service use.     

Mathematics in Early Childhood: Research-Based Rationale and Practical Strategies

Mathematics education is a critical part of the curriculum for students worldwide. The foundation for understanding mathematical concepts related to number sense begins early in life, and early childhood classrooms can provide the seeds for mathematical skills that will be needed later in life. In this article, the authors make a case for meaningful and developmentally appropriate mathematics experiences for young children in diverse early learning settings. Instructional and curricular methods inspired by the Reggio Emilia Approach are described as effective ways to teach number concepts to young children from preschool through primary age. Strategies for teachers of young learners are presented in order to strengthen the mathematics curriculum in contemporary early learning settings. The authors’ analysis and recommendations are informed by their extensive experiences including studies in Reggio Emilia early childhood settings (infant toddler, preschool, and primary schools) and their work in early childhood teacher education at their respective universities.     

Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers' inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors

A prospective longitudinal design was employed to ascertain whether different types of behavioral inhibition (i.e., traditional, peer-social) were stable from toddler to preschool age, and whether inhibited temperament and/or parenting style would predict children's subsequent social and behavioral problems. At Time 1, 108 toddlers (54 males, 54 females) and their mothers were observed in the Traditional Inhibition Paradigm and in a toddler-peer session; then at age 4 years, 88 children were observed with unfamiliar peers, and maternal ratings of psychological functioning were obtained. How mothers and their toddlers interacted was also observed. Results revealed meaningful connections between toddler inhibition, maternal intrusive control and derision, and nonsocial behaviors at age 4. Both forms of toddler inhibition predicted socially reticent behavior during free play at 4 years. If mothers demonstrated relatively high frequencies of intrusive control and/or derisive comments, then the association between their toddlers' peer inhibition and 4-year social reticence was significant and positive; whereas if mothers were neither intrusive nor derisive, then toddlers' peer inhibition and 4-year reticence were not significantly associated. Thus, maternal behaviors moderated the relation between toddlers' peer inhibition and preschoolers' social reticence.     

Child temperament moderates effects of parent-child mutuality on self-regulation: a relationship-based path for emotionally negative infants

This study examined infants' negative emotionality as moderating the effect of parent-child mutually responsive orientation (MRO) on children's self-regulation (n=102). Negative emotionality was observed in anger-eliciting episodes and in interactions with parents at 7 months. MRO was coded in naturalistic interactions at 15 months. Self-regulation was measured at 25 months in effortful control battery and as self-regulated compliance to parental requests and prohibitions. Negative emotionality moderated the effects of mother-child, but not father-child, MRO. Highly negative infants were less self-regulated when they were in unresponsive relationships (low MRO), but more self-regulated when in responsive relationships (high MRO). For infants not prone to negative emotionality, there was no link between MRO and self-regulation. The "regions of significance" analysis supported the differential susceptibility model not the diathesis-stress model.     

Socialization and Temperament in the Development of Guilt and Conscience

Toddlerhood antecedents of conscience were examined in 58 8-10-year-old children. The measures of conscience, such as general affective/moral orientation, the extent of reparation, and the intensity of guilt feelings, were assessed from children's narratives produced in response to semiprojective stories involving transgressions, distress, and conflict. Maternal endorsed socialization orientations and observed rearing behaviors that deemphasized the use of power were associated with the children's internalized conscience 6 years later. However, these findings were significant only for children who were relatively prone to fearful arousal. The capacity for self-regulation, indexed by early compliance and noncompliance to maternal socialization, predicted children's internalized conscience 6 years later. There was preliminary evidence that compliance obtained in a rearing context that deemphasized power assertion was most conducive to the development of conscience. The findings are discussed in view of the interplay of socialization and temperament in moral development.     

关于幼儿德育的若干理论思考

幼儿德育是幼儿教育的重要组成部分，是学校德育和终身教育的基础。本文从幼儿德育的定义、价值观、内容、途径和方法等方面探讨幼儿德育的若干理论问题。