A “Nordic model” of adult education: What might be its defining parameters?

Judging by their literacy proficiency scores, Nordic countries stand out from others. Their consistently high scores are intriguing and make their populations interesting benchmarks for other countries that participated in the International Adult Literacy Survey. This article addresses the question of whether there are any specific ‘Nordic’ ways of planning and implementing adult education policies. Are there any features that define a common approach to adult education, one that sets the Nordic countries apart from other advanced regions in Europe and North America?Beyond the general pattern, specific sub-groups of the population are explored, and especially the groups ‘at-risk’, i.e. those that score low on literacy proficiency scales, have the least education, are old or unemployed. All Nordic countries are included in the analysis: Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden participated in the original IALS survey, whereas Iceland collected comparable data on adult education participation in a separate survey.That Nordic countries have a comparatively high level of participation in adult education is a fact that leaves no room for discussion. However, if not only the rate of participation but also volume is considered then the Nordic countries appear more similar to others. What sets the Nordic countries apart is the level of public support for adult education for the low-skilled population. More generally, it would seem that public support for disadvantaged groups is the main defining characteristic of Nordic countries.     

Determinants of literacy proficiency: a lifelong-lifewide learning perspective

The aim of this article is to investigate the predictive capacity of major determinants of literacy proficiency that are associated with a variety of contexts including school, home, work, community and leisure. An identical structural model based on previous research is fitted to data for 18 countries. The results show that even after accounting for all factors education remains the most important predictor of literacy proficiency. In all countries, however, the total effect of education is significantly mediated through further learning occurring at work, at home and in the community. Therefore, the job and other literacy-related factors complement education in predicting literacy proficiency. This result points to a virtual cycle of lifelong learning, particularly to how educational attainment influences other learning behaviours throughout life. In addition, results show that home background as measured by parents’ education is also a strong predictor of literacy proficiency, but in many countries this occurs only if a favourable home background is complemented by some post-secondary education.     

Development of School Achievement in the Nordic Countries During Half a Century

The aim is to describe the development of achievement in compulsory school in the Nordic countries from the 1960s. The study relies on published results concerning literacy and numeracy from the international large-scale assessments between 1964 and 2012. Among others, the following conclusions are drawn: (1) for most countries, a small but consistent increase in the level of achievement was observed from the mid-1970s to around 1990 for both literacy and numeracy; (2) Finland improved literacy performance dramatically between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, which is hypothesized to be associated with the introduction of part-time special education; (3) for all countries performance declined from the late-1990s/early-2000s, which is hypothesized to be due to different factors in different countries.     

Literacy proficiency of older adults

As a supplement to the International Adult Literacy Survey, the Netherlands devoted special attention to the literacy proficiency of older adults. A close look at the literacy skills of older adults and their use in daily life is relevant because demographic developments, individualisation, the position of older employees in the labour market and technological innovations require an increasing level of literacy skills. Accordingly, this chapter compares the literacy skills of older adults with other age groups, and presents an analysis of the determinants of literacy proficiency of older adults. In addition, results from follow-up interviews conducted with 40 older adults who had low proficiency scores in the Netherlands are presented. This includes (a) the kind of problems they experience in daily life, (b) the kind of coping strategies they develop, and (c) their attitude towards educational interventions. The results show that the literacy proficiency of older adults gives reasons for concern. They score significantly lower than other age groups. However, many older adults develop practical coping strategies, such as using social networks, assertiveness in asking for help, etc. Yet, some of the coping strategies are vulnerable because of societal changes such as rationalisation in industry and public services.     

The evolution of socio-economic disparities in literacy skills from age 15 to age 27 in 20 countries

This study contributes to the literature by examining the evolution of socio-economic disparities in literacy skills between age 15 and 27. It uses combined cross-sectional data from the Programme for International Student Assessment and the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies in 20 countries and adopts a synthetic cohort approach. In the article we examine if there are differences in the evolution of socio-economic disparities in literacy between the teenage years and young adulthood among high-achieving students (90th percentile) and among low-achieving students (10th percentile) and compare differences across education systems. We used parental education as an indicator of socio-economic status. Findings indicate that on average, disparities in literacy skills observed at age 15 widen by 15% of a standard deviation by age 27. Such increase is determined by a more pronounced growth in achievement among individuals with tertiary educated parents than among individuals whose parents did not complete tertiary education. The increase in socio-economic gaps between age 15 and 27 is more pronounced among low-achieving students. The group that improves the most between age 15 and 27 is low-achieving individuals with tertiary educated parents. We find that socio-economic differences in educational attainment, NEET status and use of skills at home and in the workplace explain a large part of socio-economic disparities in literacy achievement among young adults. Although countries with above-average disparities at age 15 tend to also display above-average disparities at age 27, we identify differences across countries.     

Literacy activity and health among older adults in the USA

ABSTRACT

Health literacy skills are known to be a key mediator of the relationship between education and health in the general population. However, one aspect of health literacy skills—individuals’ actual literacy activities—remains understudied, especially among older adults. Health disparities that are driven by inequalities in education and level of health literacy skills are particularly problematic for older adults since they are exacerbated in old age by disadvantages that accumulate over the life course. This study examined a nationally representative sample of US adults age 50 years and older (n = 2,573) using data from the 2014 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Parallel mediation analysis was conducted to examine the partial mediation effects of health literacy skills and literacy activity (i.e., reading at home) on the relationship between education and health. Results showed that both health literacy skills and literacy activity mediated the education–health relationship. On average, literacy skills mediated 31.89% and literacy activities mediated 9.59% of the effect of education of self-rated health. Literacy activity, such as reading, is an easily accessible, autonomous, and sustainable option for promoting health in later life. Policies that support the intersection of public health and education may promote lifelong learning and well-being among US adults.     

The effects of post-compulsory education and training systems on literacy and numeracy skills: A comparative analysis using PISA 2000 and the 2011 survey of adult skills

This article analyses the contribution of post-compulsory education and training systems to the development of literacy and numeracy skills across OECD countries. While there is extensive cross-country comparative research on the effects of primary and lower secondary education systems on aggregate skills levels, there has been little comparative analysis of system effects after the end of lower secondary education. This article uses a quasi-cohort analysis of the tested literacy and numeracy skills of 15-year-olds in PISA 2000 and 27-year-olds in the 2011 OECD Survey of Adult Skills (SAS) to estimate the gains in different countries in mean levels of competence in literacy and numeracy. We found that Nordic countries (Norway and Sweden) with comprehensive upper secondary education and training systems and German-speaking countries (Austria and Germany) with dual systems of apprenticeship were particular effective, whilst countries with mixed systems (England, Ireland, Northern Ireland and Spain) showed a relative decline in both literacy and numeracy. The education system characteristics that account for these differences are (a) the inclusiveness – as proxied by high rates of participation at 17/18 and low social gradients of level 3 completion; (b) the esteem of vocational programmes; and (c) curriculum standardisation with regard to the study of maths and the national language.     

Ageing and skills: The case of literacy skills

The relationship between ageing and skills is of growing policy significance due to population ageing, the changing nature of work and the importance of literacy for social and economic well‐being. This article examines the relationship between age and literacy skills in a sample of OECD countries using three internationally comparable surveys. By pooling the survey data across time we can separate birth cohort and ageing effects. In doing so, we find that literacy skills decline with age and that, in most of our sample countries, successive birth cohorts tend to have poorer literacy outcomes. Therefore, once we control for cohort effects, the rate at which literacy proficiency falls with age is much more pronounced than that which is apparent, based on the cross‐sectional relationship between age and literacy skills at a point in time. Further, in studying the literacy‐age relationship across the skill distribution in Canada we find a more pronounced decline in literacy skills with age at lower percentiles, which suggests that higher initial literacy moderates the influence of cognitive ageing.     

The Development of Popular Literacy in the Nordic Countries. A Comparative Historical Study

In all Nordic countries illiteracy was eradicated in two stages. Two different strategies were used: home instruction in Sweden, Finland and Iceland, and compulsory schooling in Denmark and Norway. During the first stage the general population acquired the ability to read familiar texts. Sweden started its campaign first, around the mid‐eighteenth century, and became the first Nordic literate nation in this meaning of literacy. In the second stage the concept literacy covered both ability to read (known and unknown texts) and write. Due to its excellent school system Denmark was the first Nordic country to attain literacy in the contemporary meaning of the term (around the mid‐nineteenth century). The other Nordic countries followed in the same order as their elementary schools were developed.     

Language and preliteracy skills in bilinguals and monolinguals at preschool age: effects of exposure to richly inflected speech from birth

Language proficiency before school entry has proven to be a powerful predictor of literacy development. This longitudinal study examined how simultaneous exposure to two richly inflected languages from birth contributes to the development of language-related literacy precursors at preschool age compared to peers exposed to one language. The community language turned out to be the stronger language of the bilinguals by 4 years of age and to a great extent age-appropriate compared to monolingual peers. The same initial exposure conditions resulted in three bilingual and two monolingual language proficiency profiles. For the bilinguals changes in the proportion of exposure to two home languages and frequency of language-specific social interactions explained proficiency in each language, whereas for the monolinguals exposure did not explain language proficiency. Our findings give support for the primary impact of exposure on the development of bilingualism and preliteracy skills.     

PISA and scientific literacy: similarities and differences between the nordic countries

In this paper we have set out to search for similarities and differences between the Nordic countries concerning patterns of competencies defined as scientific literacy in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study. The first part focuses on gender differences concerning the two types of competencies, understanding of scientific concepts versus skills in scientific reasoning, based on analyses of sum scores of groups of items. The second part focuses on differences and similarities between countries based on item‐by‐item analyses. Correlations between each Nordic country (as well as the Nordic group as a whole) and every other country have been used to look for a Nordic pattern. In the last part cluster analysis has been used to see how countries establish clusters and whether these clusters represent meaningful groups in a geographical, cultural or political context.     

Parents and Schools: Partnerships That Count

Children with limited English proficiency are known to be at higher risk of school failure than their peers. Risk starts early, and the achievement lag of these children often widens with age and progression in the educational system. This study attempted to determine the effects of a 2-way bilingual education program on the literacy development of at-risk kindergarten students who had lower English proficiency and were in a higher failure risk bracket than a comparison group who had higher initial English competence and participated in regular education. Students in the experimental group were instructed in English approximately 70% of the time and in Spanish approximately 30% of the time. At the end of the 1st grade, no statistically significant differences were found between the 2 groups on the Scholastic Reading Inventory (SRI) or a combination of 6 other indicators of English literacy development.     

Participation in job-related lifelong learning among well-educated employees in the Nordic countries

The purpose of this study was to explore participation in job-related lifelong learning (LLL) among well-educated mature workers and compare it across four Nordic countries. Although this group generally is very active in LLL, the centrality of knowledge work in society, rapid pace of skills-renewal and rising learning demands for all qualifications levels, necessitates a better understanding of the patterns and factors affecting their skill development. The paper builds on theories of learning motivation, human capital and workplace learning. Data from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) by the OECD were used. In addition to high participation rates, systematic level differences in participation were found across the countries. Results of logit regression analyses revealed clear differences between countries in the models that explained participation, which gave limited support to a single ‘Nordic model’ of LLL. Furthermore, the predictors of participation commonly found among adult populations, low-educated individuals and/or younger adults, appeared less valid for well-educated individuals.     

Decomposing Cross-Country Differences in Skills: Evidence from Four Nordic Countries

This paper performs multivariate analysis of skill differences in four Nordic countries as assessed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies survey of adults aged 16–65. The differences in average skills between Finland and each of the three Scandinavian countries are decomposed into a component that is due to different skill levels in subgroups of the population and a component that is due to differences in the composition of subgroups. The decompositions show that the high Finnish average skill level compared to the three Scandinavian countries can be attributed to the low share of immigrants in Finland and to high scores among Finns with high school and less than high school education. The Finnish average score is pulled substantially downwards as a consequence of the low numeracy skill level among older Finns, which is consistent with an increase in the quantity or quality of Finnish education over time, relative to the other three Nordic countries.     

Mexican Mothers’ English Proficiency and Children's School Readiness: Mediation Through Home Literacy Involvement

Research Findings: Home literacy involvement (e.g., shared book reading) has been linked to enhanced cognitive development and school readiness during early childhood. Furthermore, precursory reading and math skills are key predictors of high school achievement. This study examined prospective relations between Mexican mothers’ English proficiency, their home literacy involvement, and their children's school readiness (i.e., preschool reading and math scores). A large, nationally representative sample of preschool-age Mexican American children (N = 826) was used to test a theoretically derived path analysis that demonstrated that mother-reported home literacy involvement mediated the relation between mother-reported English proficiency and children's reading achievement, but not math. Results were evident even after key family and child characteristics were controlled. Practice or Policy: Findings suggest that Mexican American children's early education and development may be enriched by family literacy programs that enhance their mothers’ English proficiency and increase the frequency of home literacy activities.     

全球化的挑战:北欧教师教育历史进程的审视

北欧国家的教育向以均等、优质为追求目标,然在新公共管理浪潮下,原本远离市场、高度集权、强化集体概念的北欧国家也受到波及。教育改革"政策流行病"渗透并重塑北欧国家的教师教育制度。"大学化"改革将教师教育推向社会的中心,而新公共管理引发的冲突则将北欧教育传统打得支离破碎。在全球化所带来的新的范式中,国家的边界被打破,协调好各种力量成为北欧教师教育所需要应对的新的挑战。     

Supporters of low literate adults

ABSTRACT

According to the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), a large proportion of adults in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries have low literacy proficiency levels. There exist widespread stereotypes about adults who have difficulties with reading and writing, stereotypes which portray them as a socially isolated group with severe problems getting by in everyday situations that require reading and writing. Yet many people know adults who have difficulties with reading and writing (e.g. from their families, workplaces, or circles of friends or acquaintances) and support them in dealing with literacy-related tasks. To offer an additional perspective, this paper focuses on these literacy supporters. It draws on on qualitative and quantitative data gathered in 2013 and 2014 in Germany. The findings indicate that there are various types of support, from taking over tasks in informal learning settings or participation in reading and writing classes. This article discusses the results of this study in the wider context of literacy mediation, which is well established in international research but far less prominent in Germany.     

A Nordic Perspective on Early Childhood Education and Care Policy

The national policies and historical roots of early childhood education (ECE) vary from society to society. In the Nordic countries, early childhood education and care (ECEC) policies have been built in the context of the welfare state. As such, they are closely connected to other welfare policy areas such as social policy, family policy and education policy, in addition to which a close relationship with labour policy is also evident. This article sheds light on the historical roots of Nordic ECEC policies by describing the commonalities and differences between the Nordic countries. The ‘Nordic model’ is commonly described as integrated. Education, teaching and caring form an integrated unit and the term early childhood education and care is therefore typically used when describing the ‘Nordic model’. It is also said to be based on a child-centred, holistic approach with an emphasis on participation, democracy, autonomy and freedom, while its track record of high quality ECE services is considered to be due in part to the use of a well-trained workforce. The Nordic countries are, however, developing and redefining their ECEC policies in the global economic and cultural context, in which governments have to choose their priorities. Pressure to standardize ECE services is also apparent, and signs of erosion of the key elements of the Nordic model have been seen in recent policy debates. This paper discusses the current direction of Nordic ECE policy making and the future of the Nordic model.     

Access to local books: the effects of Read Malawi from a children's rights perspective

Children in low‐income, postcolonial countries such as Malawi have few opportunities with quality reading materials that promote independence as readers. In this study, we argue that access to locally produced text relevant to linguistic and cultural contexts is a fundamental human right for children throughout the world. Situating this study within the intersection of research on children's rights and complementary reading materials, we analyse data from a project in Malawi. We consider the ways in which a respect for children's educational rights – specifically, their rights to access information via children's books – can help them develop their biliteracy. Additionally, we examine how the Read Malawi program contributes to Malawian children's literacy development in both national and official languages. Our findings suggest not only a humanistic need for quality complementary books, but also the empirical justification for books in the hands of children; in particular, an interconnected relationship between borrowing books from school and engagement with Read Malawi was found, especially when we explore children's English proficiency. Through Read Malawi, this study exemplifies what a quality literacy intervention can do in supporting children's Chichewa and English proficiency and improving their rights to quality education.     

An investigation into the early literacy skills of Grade R Second-language (L2) learners in South Africa

Abstract

Reading proficiency is currently a great concern for South African educators. According to the literature on reading proficiency, reading difficulties stem from early literacy development and any improvement in these early literacy skills may help improve reading proficiency. It has, however also been found that South African learners who participated in this study do not meet the standards for their age group in terms of early literacy development.

Educators need to know what learners should have accomplished in terms of early literacy to support learners before they can commence with instruction in initial reading. Skills crucial for the development of literacy are underlying cognitive skills (i.e., the ability to learn deliberately), the development of symbolic representation, oral language, knowledge of literacy concepts, and behaviours and attitudes. This article looks at the skills required for early literacy development. An empirical investigation was undertaken to determine to what extent these skills were mastered by Grade R second-language (L2) learners. The empirical investigation related these skills to the sub-skills of the School Readiness Evaluation by Trained Testers (SETT) to determine the extent to which a group of Grade R learners have mastered the different skills of early literacy development. The findings paint a bleak picture, since most of the participants lack adequate proficiency regarding the skills of early literacy development.