Value,violence, and the ethics of gaming

I argue for two theses. First, many arguments against violent gaming rely on what I call the contamination thesis, drawing their conclusions by claiming that violent gaming contaminates real world interactions. I argue that this thesis is empirically and philosophically problematic. Second, I argue that rejecting the contamination thesis does not entail that all video games are morally unobjectionable. The violence within a game can be evaluated in terms of the values the game cultivates, reinforces, denigrates, or disrespects. Games which present violence in ways that disrespect objects of values are more objectionable than violent games that reinforce or cultivate those values. The resulting analysis evaluates games on a case-by-case basis and pays particular attention to the representational context of the violence.     

Is it wrong to play violent video games?

Many people have a strong intuition that there is something morallyobjectionable about playing violent video games, particularly withincreases in the number of people who are playing them and the games'alleged contribution to some highly publicized crimes. In this paper,I use the framework of utilitarian, deontological, and virtue ethicaltheories to analyze the possibility that there might be some philosophicalfoundation for these intuitions. I raise the broader question of whetheror not participating in authentic simulations of immoral acts in generalis wrong. I argue that neither the utilitarian, nor the Kantian hassubstantial objections to violent game playing, although they offersome important insights into playing games in general and what it ismorally to be a ``good sport.' The Aristotelian, however, has a plausibleand intuitive way to protest participation in authentic simulations ofviolent acts in terms of character: engaging in simulated immoral actserodes one's character and makes it more difficult for one to live afulfilled eudaimonic life.     

Locating the wrongness in ultra-violent video games

The extremely high level of simulated violence in certain recent video games has made some people uneasy. There is a concern that something is wrong with these violent games, but, since the violence is virtual rather than real, it is difficult to specify the nature of the wrongness. Since there is no proven causal connection between video-game violence and real violence, philosophical analysis can be particularly helpful in locating potential sources of wrongness in ultra-violent video games. To this end, this paper analyzes video game violence through the lens of utilitarian, Kantian, and post-modern perspectives. Through these analyses, several explanations of the wrongness in violent video games emerge.     

Violent video games and morality: a meta-ethical approach

This paper considers what it is about violent video games that leads one reasonably minded person to declare “That is immoral” while another denies it. Three interpretations of video game content are discussed: reductionist, narrow, and broad. It is argued that a broad interpretation is required for a moral objection to be justified. It is further argued that understanding the meaning of moral utterances—like “x is immoral”—is important to an understanding of why there is a lack of moral consensus when it comes to the content of violent video games. Constructive ecumenical expressivism is presented as a means of explaining what it is that we are doing when we make moral pronouncements and why, when it comes to video game content, differing moral attitudes abound. Constructive ecumenical expressivism is also presented as a means of illuminating what would be required for moral consensus to be achieved.     

Violent computer games,empathy, and cosmopolitanism

Many philosophical and public discussions of the ethical aspects of violent computer games typically centre on the relation between playing violent videogames and its supposed direct consequences on violent behaviour. But such an approach rests on a controversial empirical claim, is often one-sided in the range of moral theories used, and remains on a general level with its focus on content alone. In response to these problems, I pick up Matt McCormick’s thesis that potential harm from playing computer games is best construed as harm to one’s character, and propose to redirect our attention to the question how violent computer games influence the moral character of players. Inspired by the work of Martha Nussbaum, I sketch a positive account of how computer games can stimulate an empathetic and cosmopolitan moral development. Moreover, rather than making a general argument applicable to a wide spectrum of media, my concern is with specific features of violent computer games that make them especially morally problematic in terms of empathy and cosmopolitanism, features that have to do with the connections between content and medium, and between virtuality and reality. I also discuss some remaining problems. In this way I hope contribute to a less polarised discussion about computer games that does justice to the complexity of their moral dimension, and to offer an account that is helpful to designers, parents, and other stakeholders. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the ACLA 2006 conference in Princeton, 25 March 2006.     

Objections to Ostritsch’s argument in “The amoralist challenge to gaming and the gamer’s moral obligation”

This paper raises three objections to the argument presented by Ostritsch in The amoralist challenge to gaming and the gamer’s moral obligation, in which the amoralist’s mantra “it’s just a game” is viewed as an illegitimate rebuttal of all moral objections to (typically violent) video games. The first objection focuses on Ostritsch’s ‘strong sense’ of player enjoyment, which I argue is too crude, given the moral work it is meant to be doing. Next, I question the legitimacy of Ostritsch’s claim that certain video games are immoral. I examine what is involved in making this claim and what would be required for a normative position to be established: none of which is addressed by Ostritsch. Finally, I challenge the legitimacy of his claim that players are obliged not to play certain video games in certain ways (i.e., games endorsing immorality as ‘fun games’). I distinguish between immoral and suberogatory actions, arguing that the latter is in fact more applicable to cases Ostritsch has in mind, and that one is not obliged not to engage in these actions.     

Game mechanics and technological mediation: an ethical perspective on the effects of MMORPG’s

In the past decades, video games have grown from a niche market to one of the major entertainment media, enticing millions of players worldwide. When ethical aspects of video games are being debated, the discussion oftentimes revolves around effects of their content, such as violence. This paper argues that effects of game mechanics, such as reward mechanisms, should be considered as well, as these are at the core of the appeal of games. We analyze the ethical dimension of behavioral game design present in Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPG’s). Using the framework of technological mediation, we show how opaque and seductive game mechanics can invite problematic usage patterns, such as excessive use with negative effects on well-being, and how designers can take responsibility for morally acceptable impact of their games. Having a practical focus, the paper concludes with several proposals for better design.     

网络游戏机制融入教学实践的研究

随着计算机和网络技术的发展,各类网络游戏雨后春笋般地兴起,很多人热衷甚至痴迷于游戏之中。如何将其积极的因素与教育融合,取长补短,调动学生的学习兴趣,提高学习效果。本文就网络游戏强“磁性”的原因、游戏机制融入教学内容设计和游戏机制融入实践教学三个方面进行了阐述。     

Militainment and mechatronics: Occultatio and the veil of science fiction cool in United States Air Force advertisements

In 2009, the United States Air Force aired a series of science fiction-themed recruitment commercials on network television and their official YouTube channel. In these advertisements, the superimposition of science fiction imagery over depictions of Air Force operations frames these missions as near-future sci-fi adventure, ironically summarized by the tagline: “It’s not science fiction. It’s what we do every day.” Focusing on an early advertisement for the Air Force’s Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle, this essay explores how themes essential to the science fiction genre play a role in influencing contemporary attitudes about autonomous and semi-autonomous robotic weapons, as well as the way in which the aesthetic and functional qualities of these advanced technologies are used to frame moral arguments about their use. As a reconfiguration of the near-future battleground in the guise of science fiction, the “Reaper” ad reveals the way in which science fiction has come to serve as a functional-aesthetic benchmark and cultural sounding board, against which “every day” technologies can be measured and claims about their value, ethos, and social appeal are made. This essay explores the ethical entanglements between science fiction film and video games, and military technology, and the complex role science fiction plays in influencing public attitudes towards military technologies.     

Under the radar: Industry entry by user entrepreneurs

We inductively develop a model of the commercialization process for new products or services user entrepreneurs undertake when entering an industry while drawing on proprietary technology developed in another industry. Extending the growing field of user entrepreneurship, we identify a two-phase approach to industry entry by user entrepreneurs who start “under the radar” of incumbent firms, gain experience, attract a first potential customer base, and then, in a second phase, engage in commercialization. During this process, a community of fellow users is of major importance for the entrepreneur, serving as a knowledge pool for skills development and experimentation with different commercialization paths. We study a nascent group of firms founded by users of video games who became entrepreneurs on entering the animation industry by producing Machinima, a new film genre characterized by shooting film in video games. We explain how user entrepreneurs gain access to complementary assets (video games) for their new use (shooting film), how they deal with intellectual property issues when using other firms’ assets, and how user entrepreneurs combine domain knowledge about film production with their experience in video games and the art of Machinima. Our propositions hold implications for management and policy.     

数字艺术Matte Painting技术浅析

Matte Painting就是指通过指定色抠像合成人物与背景时,美术工作者对背景及角色图像所作的调整。Matte Painting技术运用的范围很广,从最开始的电影到电视,再到广告、音乐影视和游戏,都发挥着重要作用。     

Interfirm networks in periods of technological turbulence and stability

This paper examines how network relations between firms influence firm survival by explicitly addressing the moderating role of changing technological regimes. Using longitudinal data on 1385 developers and 190 publishers of video games in the global video game industry between 1972 and 2007, the analyses show that the effect of network ties between developers and publishers on the survival probability of developers is moderated by the level of technological turbulence in the industry. The results show that the effect of network partner failure on firm survival is dependent on the strength of ties. The failure of strongly tied network partners harms developers in stable periods and benefits them in turbulent eras, while no such relation is found for weakly tied network partners. Network partner diversity positively affects firm performance in epochs of technological turbulence, while the effect plays no significant role for firm survival in stable settings. The results indicate that the relation between interfirm network relations and firm survival are moderated by sequences of technological renewal in the video game industry which causes the industry to go through an evolution that deviates from the typical S-shaped trajectory found in industries that are characterized by strong path-dependent processes.     

Resolving the gamer’s dilemma

Morgan Luck raises a potentially troubling problem for gamers who enjoy video games that allow the player to commit acts of virtual murder. The problem simply is that the arguments typically advanced to defend virtual murder in video games would appear to also support video games that allowed gamers to commit acts of virtual paedophilia. Luck’s arguments are persuasive, however, there is one line of argument that he does not consider, which may provide the relevant distinction: as virtual paedophilia involves the depiction of sexual acts involving children, it is therefore an instance of child pornography. I argue that virtual paedophilia involves the depiction of sexual acts involving children, which amounts to child pornography. I then draw on arguments to show that child pornography is morally objectionable. Finally, depictions of virtual murder are not instances of pornography, and so are not morally objectionable for this reason. So, there is a relevant moral distinction to draw between virtual murder and virtual paedophilia that is able to justify the former but not the latter.     

暴力电子游戏与青少年攻击性

随着现代技术的发展,电子游戏渐渐进入人们的生活,暴力电子游戏与青少年攻击性关系密切。本文介绍了该领域的研究进展,暴力电子游戏对青少年攻击性的影响,以及四种阐明作用机制的理论,着重用一般攻击模型（GAM）对该现象作出解释,并提出了建议措施与展望。     

Popularizing the ancestry of man: Robert Ardrey and the killer instinct

This essay examines Robert Ardrey (1908-1980)-American playwright, screenwriter, and prolific author-as a case study in the popularization of science. Bringing together evidence from both paleoanthropology and ethology, Ardrey became in the 1960s a vocal proponent of the theory that human beings are innately violent. The essay shows that Ardrey used his popular scientific books not only to consolidate a new science of human nature but also to question the popularizer's standard role, to reverse conventional hierarchies of scientific expertise, and to test the boundaries of professional scientific authority. Understanding how he did this can help us reassess the meanings and uses of popular science as critique in Cold War America. The essay also shows that E. O. Wilson's sociobiology was in part a reaction to the subversive political message of Ardrey's science.     

民间游戏在幼儿园教育教学中的价值和运用

近年来,随着学前教育的发展和进步,教育部门越来越重视学前教育的质量和水平,也对幼儿教师提出了更高的要求。要求老师在新时代背景下,要不断地创新教学方式,引进丰富多彩的游戏,激发幼儿的学习兴趣,促进幼儿身心健康发展。因此,在实际的教学中,幼儿老师应该以幼儿教学目标和儿童实际需求为主,合理地融入民间游戏,为幼儿提供一个良好的学习氛围和游戏环境,让幼儿在玩乐中学习,并且促进幼儿各方面能力的提升。本文根据民间游戏的内涵,阐述了在幼儿园教育教学中融入民间游戏的重要意义,并且提出了在幼儿园教育教学中融入民间游戏的有效手段。     

Why do people play games? A meta-analysis

During the last decade games have arguably become the largest form of leisure information systems (IS). However, today games are also increasingly being employed for a variety of instrumental purposes. Although games have garnered a substantial amount of research attention during the last decade, research literature is scattered and there is still a lack of a clear and reliable understanding of why games are being used, and how they are placed in the established utilitarian-hedonic continuum of information systems. To address this gap, we conducted a meta-analysis of the quantitative body of literature that has examined the reasons for using games (48 studies). Additionally, we compared the findings across games that are intended for either leisure or instrumental use. Even though games are generally regarded as a pinnacle form of hedonically-oriented ISs, our results show that enjoyment and usefulness are equally important determinants for using them (though their definitive role varies between game types). Therefore, it can be posited that games are multi-purpose ISs which nevertheless rely on hedonic factors, even in the pursuit of instrumental outcomes. The present study contributes to and advances our theoretical and empirical understanding of multi-purpose ISs and the ways in which they are used.     

The Tragic Destiny of the Heroine in The Return of the Native

This essay is intended to explore some of the elements which bring about the tragic destiny of thc heroine,Eustacia.She is a beautiful and romantic woman with violent passions. In her dark beauty, Hardy has painted one of his most memorable portrairts This essay attempts to deal with the topic question primarily from two aspects, the inner world of Eustacia herself and the external world around her.In Hardy's work,human existence is usually depicted as a tragedy determined by powers beyond the individual's command--the external pressures of society and the internal compulsions of character.     

高中英语课堂中提高学生学习兴趣初探

众所周知,兴趣是最好的老师,是学习的动力。英语学习是高中学习中必不可少的一个环节,然而,很多学生缺乏对英语的学习兴趣,不愿意去学习。因此,怎样激发学生学习英语的兴趣,使学生主动学习是英语教师一直关注的话题。笔者就这一问题,结合自己的一些教学实际,进行了初步的论证。