From mother to daughter: changes in intergenerational educational and occupational mobility in Germany

Recent decades have seen a dramatic expansion in the educational attainment and occupational opportunities of German women. Both the educational and occupational positions of the mothers and those of their daughters are continuously changing across cohorts. Our study aims to detect the probability of daughters to experience maternal-line intergenerational educational and occupational mobility. Using new data from the National Educational Panel Study of adult cohorts, we analyse successive cohorts of German women born between 1944 and 1984. We demonstrate that the relation between mothers’ and daughters’ educational and occupational career has changed over time. Maternal-line female mobility has decreased over cohorts. Our results also reveal that the relationship between educational careers and female job mobility has changed. The tertiary level of education has become more relevant across cohorts in preventing downward intergenerational mobility and it has become a prerequisite for taking part in the completion for upward intergenerational mobility.     

Transnational vocational guidance in the European Community

In the Single European Market, which will come into effect at the end of 1992 transnational vocational guidance will play an important role as one of the measures to enhance mobility within and between the twelve member states of the European Community (EC). The mobility of goods, services, capital, and people are essential to obtaining economic growth, which, in turn, is one of the most important political goals of the Single European Market.Of the four types of mobility, vocational guidance deals with people. Transnational vocational guidance supports individuals in their attempt to become more mobile across country borders. In order to map the existing transnational guidance provisions in the EC, a study on eight border regions was made in 1990 (Plant, 1990a). The idea was that this small-scale picture would point to some of challenges for guidance in the large-scale Single Market.From 1992 guidance services in the EC will have to adapt not only to rapid changes in national labour market conditions, but also to the demands of information on education, training, employment opportunities, study grants etc. in other member states. In these terms, psychological counselling dealing with possible personal problems in relation to transnational mobility is not at the heart of the matter.     

Careers guidance services in a changing Europe

Current initiatives designed to develop stronger international co-operation between guidance services within the European Community are outlined. The implications of extending the Community to cover other European countries are discussed. The issue is raised of whether a common European approach to guidance is likely to emerge, and whether it is likely to differ from American approaches. Adapted and updated version of a paper presented at the International Conference of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance held at the University of Lisbon, Portugal, on 9–13 September 1991.     

Careers guidance services within the European Community: contrasts and common trends

The main features of the guidance systems for young people aged 14–25 in the Member-States of the European Community are outlined. A number of important differences are analysed: in terms of the main location of guidance services, the focus of such services, the range of guidance activities, the structure of financing, and the professional identity of those occupying guidance roles. At the same time, three common trends are identified which have a general if not universal validity across the Member-States: the view of educational and vocational guidance as a continuous process; the emergence of a more open professional model; and the greater emphasis on the individual as an active agent, rather than as a passive recipient, within the guidance process.     

Guidance needs of black first year students in a developing country

The guidance needs of 348 Black first year university students were investigated. The results indicate that help with academic problems (subject and course choice and study skills) should receive priority in planning university guidance services for this population group. The need for adequate financial support also proved to be a significant problem with the students. As predicted, help with making career plans did not figure as a major need, although the time variable (first week of the academic year) may have influenced the results. Contrary to a stated hypothesis, help needed with personal problems proved to be the least required service. Another important need identified was a lack of sufficient educational, occupational and personal information. Some of the recommendations made to provide adequate guidance services include sufficiently staffed guidance bureaus, the lengthening of the academic year for freshmen, non-technical information pamphlets, combining computer scoring of standardized tests with the do-it-yourself approach in order to provide reliable information and a mobile career guidance unit.     

Teacher turnover: What can we learn from Europe?

Shortages of qualified teachers in primary and secondary education are very common in almost all European countries and in the US. Since high quality teachers are usually the most likely to leave, much attention has been focused on teacher turnover; retaining the best teachers can help to ameliorate teacher shortages. Using data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), this paper examines the rates and characteristics of teacher turnover across European countries. Though the numerical rates of teacher turnover have followed similar patterns, countries are very individual in other respects, including the types of positions teachers hold and how they are appraised. Moreover, from the early 1990s, Eastern European countries experienced economic transitions that have influenced teacher mobility in the long term. Thanks to SHARE, we can study the occupational trajectories of respondents in nineteen European countries. By identifying those who changed their occupation, we can learn more about teacher turnover, its characteristics across Europe and how it has been affected by economic and political transition.     

Stressors and Supports for Adult Online Learners: Comparing First- and Continuing-Generation College Students

A mixed-methods approach was used to examine the perceptions that adult online learners have about their ability to succeed in their educational pursuits, the barriers that they face, and the institutional supports that help them to persist. Particular attention was paid to the differences between first-generation and continuing-generation adult online learners. Survey findings show that the majority of adult online learners—both first- and continuing-generation—are confident in their abilities to succeed in school. First-generation adult online learners are more likely to cite highly demanding work environments, which may impede their ability to balance school with other commitments. Both groups make use of the supports offered by their schools, especially those related to curriculum and technical guidance, but first-generation adult online learners have higher rates of usage overall. In interviews, both groups cite the importance of advisors, whereas first-generation adult online learners are more likely to cite problems with teachers as obstacles to their success. These findings imply that it is important to consider students' generational status when developing programs and services for the adult online student population.     

我国教师合理流动的制度性障碍探析

为了促进教师在公办学校和民办学校之间的合理流动,2002年我国颁布了《中华人民共和国民办教育促进法》,明确规定了民办学校教师与公办学校教师在法律地位和业务培训、职务聘任等方面依法享有同等权利。但目前来看,教师流动呈现出向公办学校＂一边倒＂现象,教师的合理流动受制于诸多制度性障碍。     

Vulnerable young people and post-16 educational aspirations during Covid-19

This study used a longitudinal, probability sample survey, Understanding Society Covid-19, to examine young people's post-16 educational aspirations at the height of the Covid-19 pandemic, with a particular emphasis on four vulnerable groups (namely, young carers; Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic young people; young people with long-term illness and disability; and people with internalising and externalising behavioural difficulties). The findings from this study showed young carers and young people with health conditions to be less likely to choose A levels, despite reporting roughly equal levels of school engagement and school-related support. The Covid-19 pandemic has laid bare the obstacles often faced by young carers and young people with pre-existing health conditions and behaviour difficulties. It is hoped that the findings will contribute to debates about social care and education and will have implications for public policy and action, especially as public services are under enormous strain and are less likely to reach those who need them most.     

The Conditions of Movement: a Discussion of Academic Mobility between Two Early Career Scholars

Academic mobility is an increasingly crucial topic to the current and future dynamics of doctoral study and the professoriate. Much of the research has focused on US, UK and European contexts. This research explores academic mobility and the manifold issues that arise between the jurisdictions of Canada and the US, in ways that parallel and diversify previous research based on various understandings of mobility. The qualitative perspective is grounded in a reflective narrative approach that enables exploration of powerful themes. The findings indicate that there are costs, tensions and benefits to academic mobility that serve to emphasise specific personal and professional elements to the pursuit of academic life that need explicit articulation. These findings encourage additional scholarly and practical attention to the changing nature of doctoral study and of academic work and life across jurisdictions.     

Career guidance in the Middle East and North Africa

The results are presented of a policy-focused review of career guidance services in 10 Middle East and North African countries. A range of economic, political, socio-cultural and educational factors which seem likely to have constrained the development of such services, and to have influenced the forms they have taken, are discussed. A number of drivers for change are outlined, the nature of the main current services is described, and a number of common issues are explored. Six broad themes are identified for the future development of career guidance services within the region.     

The Emergence and Institutionalisation of the European Higher Education and Research Area

Since the European unification project started in the 1950s, rules, regulations and policies have been formulated by the European Union (and its predecessors) to facilitate the flow of products and people; those who benefited from the increasing transnational exchange urged European actors to remove remaining obstacles and further facilitate European trade and mobility. In the field of higher education and research, this transnational activity has led to the emergence of European rules, a strengthening of European institutions and the development of a European higher education and research community. In other words, it has led to the institutionalisation of the European higher education and research area (EHERA). The argument put forward in this article is that these three dimensions and the increase in transnational activity shape a dynamic process of which further integration of the EHERA is likely to be a result.     

Varying access to professional,special educational support: a total population comparison of special educators in Swedish independent and municipal schools

Independent schools are securely established in the Swedish education system. Prior research shows they generally have fewer pupils in need of support and lower proportions of special educators. Here, results are presented from a total population study of Swedish special educators (n = 4252) examined after 2001. The aim was to explore and compare the occupational situations of special educators working in Swedish municipal and independent schools. This is done by studying their occupational situations and the values they express regarding identification of – and work with – special support. The results show that while the respondents are demographically similar and express similar values, they have very different occupational situations. Those employed in independent schools have fewer years’ experience as special educators, are more often employed part‐time than full‐time and are more likely to hold other positions in schools (such as head teacher) than those employed in municipal schools. The results further illustrate different organisational approaches towards special educational support. Apparent is that independent schools offer professional special educational resources to a lower degree and utilise them differently. This is likely to influence the situation of pupils in need of support, and has consequences for the image of the Swedish education system.     

Careers guidance in a developing country: Malaysia

Formal careers guidance services are a product of economic and social development. In relatively primitive societies, allocation to adult roles is determined largely by the family, caste or class into which one is born. As the society becomes more complex, these systems start to break down, and careers guidance services are needed to lubricate—and, perhaps, catalyse (Daws, 1977)—increasing levels of social and occupational mobility. How then is the role of careers guidance evolving in those Third World countries that are trying so to accelerate the pace of economic and social development that they will be able to catch up with the living standards attained by the Western world? How far are they being influenced by the approaches to careers guidance that have evolved in such countries as the USA and Britain? How applicable are these approaches to cultures that in many ways are very different? An opportunity to examine these questions in the context of one developing country—Malaysia—was afforded by a visit carried out in February-March 1977. This article outlines some impressions of the careers guidance system that seems to be emerging there.     

Guidance and counseling in the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan: Some observations

This study traces the development of guidance and counseling movement in Jordan. Two phases of guidance movement are described. The study focuses on the need for counseling, counseling settings, counselors training and problems of guidance and counseling programs and services. Finally, suggestions for overcoming existing limitations are presented.This research was supported by a grant from the Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at Yarmouk University, Jordan.     

Career guidance needs assessment of black secondary school students in the transvaal province of the republic of South Africa

This study investigates the career guidance needs of 600 Black secondary school students. It also examines how Black secondary school principals perceive the guidance programs in their schools. The results indicate sixteen categories of career guidance needs which should receive priority in planning guidance services for this population. The students consistently felt their needs were not being met. Not less than 60% expressed a need for additional help with finding jobs and careers, understanding the guidance program, developing self-understanding, career awareness, exploration and planning, interpersonal relationships, value clarification, selection of courses and acquisition of decision-making skills in sharp contrast to the help they feel they have received. Career guidance in Black South African schools has not received proper attention for a long time. It has only been in recent years that this phenomenon has attracted the attention of educationists (Cloete and le Roux 1978). Students have always experienced difficulties when making decisions about their careers. Tenuous choices seemed to be a result of the students' lack of sufficient knowledge regarding themselves (i.e. their abilities, attitudes, interests and values) as well as vocational careers, school preparatory subjects and courses leading to those careers, educational and vocational opportunities available to them and financial assistance (Prediger et al., 1973). Self-understanding is the single basic goal of school guidance programs. Through self-understanding, students can begin to know, appreciate and utilize their aptitudes, interests, values and limitations. It improves analytical and critical thinking, growth and development. Students who understand themselves are characterized by their ability to make more rational educational and vocational plans. McDaniel and Shaftel (1956) maintained that every individual should be helped to study and understand himself as a unique person and to respond to the pressures and stimuli of the time and place in which he lives; Holland (1973) suggested that one needs appropriate and accurate information about oneself as well as the occupational field in order to make a realistic choice of vocation. Self-understanding and acceptance is a pre-requisite for the process of choosing an occupation. Super (1957) observed that along this road to self-knowledge every young person needs assistance and that success in understanding oneself is a sine qua non for the development of independence and decisionmaking skills. Interests are important in that they can help students begin thinking seriously about educational planning, vocational exploration and eventually about career development. Ginzberg (1966) believed that many young people do not know enough about the world of work to be able to translate their interests and capacities readily into occupational choices. Hoppock (1967) holds the view that one develops interest in an occupation because one has been exposed to it before. The same is still true today. Many young people are unaware that the choices of subjects they make and the activities they participate in at school can influence vocational choices which will affect their future lives. Super (1957) further contends that probably no other decision a young person makes is as crucial for happiness in life as his or her choice of work, including the educational preparation for it. Carlyle says that ‘it is the first of all problems for man to find out what kind of work he is to do in this universe’. Illuminating the importance of work in one's existence, Karl Marx said ‘man becomes man through his work’. Boy and Pine (1971) speak of work as ‘a therapeutic and personally integrating experience’. A careful look at the secondary educational system of South Africa reveals emphasis on an academic curriculum that is designed for college-bound students though not all Black students go to college. For most, secondary school is the terminal point in their formal education. This being so, the secondary school curriculum ought to provide them with sufficient self-knowledge concerning their aptitudes, interests, aspirations and skills to become successful and productive members of society. Napier (1972) contends that a society which fails to nurture the capabilities and talents of its youth fails in its obligation to them and to itself. As Tyler (1970) has observed, high school students are generally concerned about becoming independent adults, getting jobs, marrying, gaining status with their peers and helping to solve the ills of the world. Generally speaking, this is also true for South African youth. To assist them with these concerns, career guidance is essential for Black South African secondary school students today. With the help of adequate career guidance, every student should leave the school system equipped with the ability to think critically and make realistic personal decisions and plans for their future. However, this need students have for career guidance in their schools is sometimes overlooked. It is also conceivable that the degree to which individual students need guidance should vary. Differences in need seem to depend largely on differences in physical maturity, socioeconomic and cultural forces, and personality characteristics. Available evidence suggests that although there may be a common set of students' needs their priority for certain students varies and shifts in accordance with age, sex, experience and geographic location (Prediger et al., 1973; Crites, 1974, Carney and Barak 1976). According to Herr and Cramer (1979) guidance has been defined ‘as that part of pupil personnel services — and therefore of elementary and secondary education — aimed at maximal development of individual potentialities through devoting school-wide assistance to youth in the personal problems, choices and decisions each must face as he moves towards maturity’. There seems to be a consensus among guidance authorities that the following major services constitute the guidance program: the inventory service, the information service, the counselling service, the placement service and the follow-up and evaluation services. These services are an intergral part of the total school curriculum and they facilitate the instructional program as it attempts to help each student attain the maximum level of his or her potential. Research studies (Super, 1949 and 1968; Holland, 1973; Boy and Pine, 1971; Hoppock, 1967, Napier, 1972) indicate that out of an effective guidance program grows the capacity and freedom of the participants to contend more assertively for their beliefs and plan and execute strategies for making vocational decisions more efficiently and effectively. It is, therefore, imperative that each student be helped to reach the highest level of his or her potential as a human being. The present study sought to investigate the career guidance needs of Black South African secondary school students and the degree to which these needs are being met by the present guidance services in the schools. In addition, the views of the principals of the selected schools regarding the present status of guidance services were sought.     

Student access and the collegiate function in community colleges

An analysis is presented of the position of American community colleges in the nation's educational system. First, background is provided on the historical development of the community colleges. This section examines: (1) the forces contributing to the rise of higher education and the emergence of junior colleges; (2) the expansion of the two-year college role to include community services and remedial education, as well as transfer, occupational, and postsecondary terminal programs; and (3) influences on community college growth over the past four decades, including increased educational access, the student consumerism movement, the increasing enrollment of part-time students, and the absorption by community colleges of the educational functions of other agencies. The next section provides information on community college faculty, focusing on their educational background and professional involvement in contrast to that of their four-year college counterparts; the faculty union movement; and factors, such as long working hours and underprepared students, which erode faculty job satisfaction. Curriculum and instruction in the community college are discussed next, with particular focus on transfer, occupational, and community service curricula. The article concludes with an examination of the dilemma faced by college leaders attempting to maintain their institution's place in graded education, while providing a variety of educative services to their constituents on an open-door basis.An extended version of this paper was prepared for the National Commission on the Condition of Excellence in Higher Education.     

The development of career guidance and counseling in Taiwan

This paper presents a report on the development of career guidance and counseling services in Taiwan, Republic of China. Based on extensive interviews in 1983 and 1987 with leaders in public and private education, government agencies, and faculty and students in junior colleges and universities, the services currently provided are described as they interface with the educational system. Certain issues emerged from the research which may affect the further development of counseling services in Taiwan; guidelines are offered for addressing these. The issues discussed are: the stigma against counseling; the general resistance to change and the traditionalism of the educational system; the potential conflict between serving national labor needs and developing individual human potential; the stress produced by the educational system itself; the traditional emphasis on testing in schools and colleges; the need to professionalize counselors; and the judicious integration of western perspectives into an indigenous Chinese philosophy of counseling and guidance.     

On Ugliness in Words,in Politics,in Tour-ism

Many educational theoretical approaches to cosmopolitanism tend towards an unconditional appreciation of mobility, diversity and rootlessness. The recent interest of educational philosophy in the rhizome, de-territorialization and diversity contributes to this understanding of cosmopolitanism as movement across a borderless and imperfect world. Without downplaying such insights (and related political education), this article displaces and de-temporalizes them. It takes the form of a parody of the rhizome to view those insights from a different perspective and make them strike a different pedagogical note.     

Aspirations,education and inequality in England: insights from the Effective Provision of Pre-school,Primary and Secondary Education Project

Educational and occupational aspirations have become an important reference point in policy debates about educational inequality. Low aspirations are presented as a major barrier to closing educational attainment gaps and increasing levels of social mobility. Our paper contributes to this on-going debate by presenting data on the educational aspirations of students from the Effective Provision of Pre-School, Primary and Secondary Education Project in England. We analyse factors that help predict students holding high aspirations. Our findings reveal generally high aspirations across all students but also differences by income group and other background factors. We evaluate the significance of these findings for the existing literature and public policy discussions about the importance of raising educational aspirations. In particular, we question the way in which low aspirations are framed by policy-makers as a major problem in debates around educational inequality.