Confirmatory factor analysis of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2

The aim of this study was to evaluate the factor structure ofthe Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) using confirmatory factor analysis. Volunteer participants (n= 1213) completed the CSAI-2 approximately 1 h before competition and the data were analysed in two samples. The hypothesized model showed poor fit indices in both samples independently (Robust Comparative Fit Index: sample A=0.82, sample B =0.84) and simultaneously (Comparative FitIndex = 0.83), suggesting that the factor structure proposed by Martens et al. is flawed. Our findings suggest that a limitation of the Cognitive Anxiety scale derives from phrasing items around the word ‘concerned’ rather than ‘worried’. We suggest that being concerned about an impending performance does not necessarily mean that an athlete is experiencing negative thoughts, but that the athlete is acknowledging the importance and difficulty of the challenge and is attempting to mobilize resources to cope. The present results question the use of the CSAI-2 as a valid measure of competitive state anxiety.     

A Children's Form of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory: The CSAI-2C

Given the nonexistence of a multidimensional competitive state anxiety inventory for children, the 27-item Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990) was revised. The first phase of the process entailed administering a version (the CSAI-2C) with language modified for children ages 8 to 12 years (N = 119). Exploratory factor analysis supported a 3-dimensional competitive anxiety model (Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Confidence). The revised inventory includes 5 items per scale compared to the 9 items per scale on the CSAI-2. The second phase of test development for the CSAI-2C included adding items to assess Concentration Disruption (CD). Exploratory factor analytic procedures (N = 627) further supported the original 3 scales, but adequate measurement of the CD dimension was not evidenced. The final phase (N = 632), employing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), demonstrated the psychometric worthiness of a 3-dimensional model in assessing competitive state anxiety using the CSAI-2C.     

Self-presentational concerns and competitive anxiety

The purpose of this study was to improve understanding of the link between self-presentational concerns and competitive anxiety. Specifically, we examined (a) associations among self-presentational concerns and competitive state anxiety dimensional symptom responses using the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990) and (b) whether self-presentational concerns mediate trait-state anxiety relationships. In addressing these matters, we also examined the factor structure and composition of the Self-Presentation in Sport Questionnaire (SPSQ; Wilson & Eklund, 1998). Results showed that self-presentational concerns were positively associated with intensity and frequency dimensional symptoms and negatively associated with direction symptoms. Results also showed that self-presentational concerns demonstrated consistently higher associations with the cognitive component and the intensity symptom of the CSAI-2 state measures. Results showed no support for the notion that self-presentational concerns mediate the trait-state anxiety relationship. When examining the factor structure and composition of the SPSQ, the results from two independent athlete samples support the tenability of an abbreviated 21-item four-factor model. Thus the newly constituted scale is recommended for measuring self-presentational concerns in sport.     

运动员适宜焦虑区间研究

测试了运动员在赛前及赛中的竞赛状态焦虑量表(CSAI-2)的分数、去甲肾上腺素、皮质醇及睾酮的变化。结果显示,去甲肾上腺素、睾酮及皮质醇指标与CSAI-2焦虑分数的变化保持一致,去甲肾上腺素可以作为反映运动焦虑水平的有效指标,睾酮和皮质醇可以作为反映运动焦虑水平的可靠指标;结果不支持运动员的适宜焦虑区间为±1/2标准差的适宜作用区间假设;结果认为,运动员的适宜焦虑区间可用实力正常发挥时的平均焦虑分数±实力正常发挥范围内的焦虑Z分数来确定。     

Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2): Evaluating the Swedish version by confirmatory factor analyses

The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) is one of the most frequently used instruments when assessing competitive state anxiety in sport psychology research. However, doubts have been expressed about the factorial validity of both the English and the Greek versions of the scale. Hence, a revised version of the inventory (CSAI-2R) has recently been suggested to be more psychometrically sound (Cox et al., ). In the present study, the aim was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the CSAI-2 using confirmatory factor analyses. A total of 969 athletes (571 men and 398 women) competing in 26 different sports completed the Swedish version of the CSAI-2. Three different factor structures were evaluated: the original three-factor model (with cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence), a two-factor model in which self-confidence was excluded, and a three-factor model containing 17 items (CSAI-2R). The results revealed that only the 17-item model displayed an acceptable fit to the data. Although some doubts remain about the amount of variance that can be attributed to error variance in the subscales, the results suggest that it is better to use the CSAI-2R rather than the original CSAI-2.     

Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2): evaluating the Swedish version by confirmatory factor analyses

The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) is one of the most frequently used instruments when assessing competitive state anxiety in sport psychology research. However, doubts have been expressed about the factorial validity of both the English and the Greek versions of the scale. Hence, a revised version of the inventory (CSAI-2R) has recently been suggested to be more psychometrically sound (Cox et al., 2003). In the present study, the aim was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the CSAI-2 using confirmatory factor analyses. A total of 969 athletes (571 men and 398 women) competing in 26 different sports completed the Swedish version of the CSAI-2. Three different factor structures were evaluated: the original three-factor model (with cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence), a two-factor model in which self-confidence was excluded, and a three-factor model containing 17 items (CSAI-2R). The results revealed that only the 17-item model displayed an acceptable fit to the data. Although some doubts remain about the amount of variance that can be attributed to error variance in the subscales, the results suggest that it is better to use the CSAI-2R rather than the original CSAI-2.     

运用CSAI-2问卷对上海市大学生运动员赛前焦虑和状态自信心的研究

已修订出中国常模的CSAI-2问卷是信度和效度高的多维焦虑测量工具,它包括三个分量表:认知状态焦虑、躯体状态焦虑和状态自信心。运用该问卷测查235名参加大学生运动会田径和篮球比赛的被试赛前焦虑反应和状态自信必,结果表明:(1)躯体状态焦虑的强度是区分田径和篮球项目类型良好的预测因子;(2)认知状态焦虑的强度是区分运动技能水平或临场技能发挥得好坏的良好预测因子;(3)竞赛焦虑反应和状态自信心的强度与被试主观上所认知到的任务难度密切有关。因此,为使运动员有适宜的竞赛焦虑反应和状态自信心,教练员除了不断提高运动员的技能水平之外,应当结合项目的要求加强对运动员的心理训练(尤其是认知训练),并注意在赛前激起他们符合任务特征的唤醒水平。     

射击运动员赛前焦虑的研究

研究的目的在于调查31名射击运动员赛前焦虑与性别、状态自信心及运动技能水平之间的关系。所有的被试要求在比赛前测试竞赛状态焦虑量表(简称CSAI-2)。结果表明，比赛发挥好的运动员表现出最低的认知状态焦虑、躯体状态焦虑和最高的状态自信心；状态自信心是区分优秀射击运动员与一般射击运动员的良好指标，性别影响着运动员赛前的躯体状态焦虑，射击运动员的最好成绩与高自信心和低焦虑水平相联系。     

对考1000米前的状态焦虑与考试成绩之间关系的研究

本研究通过使用CSAI－2问卷及SEEs量表,测定了44名大学生考1000米前的状态焦虑强度和方向,以及赛后的心理反应。结果发现：①认知状态焦虑与躯体状态焦虑强度对所测大学生1000M跑考试的成绩有一定影响;②自信心与所测大学生1000M跑考试的成绩存在相关;③1000M跑有助于提高大学生积极的心理健康,不论成绩好、坏;④不同考试等级组被试的状态焦虑反应不仅在强度上、而且在方向上均有显著性差异,成绩差的组比成绩好的组有明显高的状态焦虑程度,并且更把状态焦虑评价为对成绩有消极的影响;⑤焦虑对运动成绩并不总是有消极的影响,有的大学生是把它认知为对成绩是有积极作用的。建议广大的体育教师应重视对大学生考长跑前状态焦虑水平的调整,并使他们对自己的状态焦虑反应有积极的评价。     

关于运动员赛前状态焦虑的研究

本研究采用马丁斯 ( R.Martens)研制的由认知焦虑、身体紧张、自信 3个因子构成的竞技状态焦虑 ( CSAI— 2 )量表 ,测试了运动员赛前状态焦虑的变化过程。分析结果表明 ,CSAI— 2状态焦虑量表的信赖性是可以确认的 ,并证实随着比赛的临近 ,男女选手的状态焦虑水平也越来越高 ,特别是身体紧张的变化更为显著。     

Stability of questionnaire items in sport and exercise psychology: bootstrap limits of agreement.

We describe an alternative method for assessing the stability of individual questionnaire items in sport and exercise psychology. To date, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient has been widely used in psychometrics. We propose an alternative non-parametric method based on proportion of agreement. Ninety-two male university students completed the revised 9-item Social Physique Anxiety Scale on two occasions, separated by a 2-week interval. Point estimates of the proportion of direct within-individual agreement between the two occasions were calculated separately for each item of the Social Physique Anxiety Scale. Estimates of uncertainty of the agreement were calculated using a bootstrapping resampling technique. For each item, 2000 bootstrap samples (each n = 92 pairs) were redrawn from the original sample. The sample statistic was calculated for each bootstrap sample to provide a bootstrap sampling distribution. The 95% confidence intervals (CI) were then calculated using the percentile method. The three most problematic items were items 7, 8 and 10 (as labelled in the original 12-item scale). These items demonstrated an agreement of 0.46 (95% CI= 0.36 0.56), 0.42 (95% CI = 0.33-0.52) and 0.41 (95% CI = 0.32-0.51) respectively. Our proposed method measures absolute agreement between test-retest responses, is free of normal assumptions, does not depend on high between-individuals variance, and can be applied successfully to individual items in the development of psychological tests.     

优秀游泳运动员赛前焦虑现状及对策

运用CSAI-2量表对优秀游泳运动员进行问卷调查,结果表明:1)性别、运动等级、训练年限都不是赛前状态焦虑的显著性变量;2)年龄变量在躯体状态焦虑、状态自信心维度上无显著性差异,但在认知状态焦虑维度上有显著性差异,15-20岁运动员的认知状态焦虑水平显著高于21-26岁运动员的认知状态焦虑水平。针对上述结论提出对策。     

Preliminary development of a questionnaire to assess peer athlete mentoring functions: the Athlete Mentoring Questionnaire (AMQ)

Using a multiphase approach, the purpose of the present study was to develop a psychometrically sound questionnaire to measure protégés’ perceptions of peer athlete mentoring functions. Phase 1 consisted of three stages: (a) item development, (b) assessment of content validity via think-aloud interviews with peer mentored athletes, and (c) assessment of content validity via an expert rating panel. In phase 2, 377 Canadian National team and varsity athletes who were peer mentored completed an initial 42-item version of the Athlete Mentoring Questionnaire (AMQ) and its factor structure was examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and hierarchical ESEM (ESEM-within-CFA). Measurement invariance testing was also performed in phase 2. The final version of the AMQ contains 34 items that measure six peer athlete mentoring functions. It is hoped that the development of the AMQ will spur research in the emerging area of peer athlete mentoring.     

The predictive ability of the frequency of perfectionistic cognitions, self-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism in relation to symptoms of burnout in youth rugby players

Perfectionism has been identified as an antecedent of athlete burnout. However, to date, researchers examining the relationship between perfectionism and athlete burnout have measured perfectionism at a trait level. The work of Flett and colleagues (Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998) suggests that perfectionism can also be assessed in terms of individual differences in the frequency with which they experience perfectionistic cognitions. The aims of this study were to: (1)examine the relationship between the frequency of perfectionistic cognitions and symptoms of athlete burnout; and (2)determine whether the frequency of perfectionistic cognitions account for additional unique variance in symptoms of athlete burnout above the variance accounted for by self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism. Two-hundred and two male rugby players (mean age 18.8 years, s?=?2.9, range 16-24) were recruited from youth teams of professional and semi-professional rugby union clubs in the UK. Participants completed measures of trait perfectionism, frequency of perfectionistic cognitions, and symptoms of athlete burnout. The frequency of perfectionistic cognitions was positively related to all symptoms of athlete burnout and explained 3-4% unique variance in symptoms of athlete burnout after controlling for self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism. Findings suggest that the frequency with which perfectionistic cognitions are experienced may also be an antecedent of athlete burnout. Perfectionistic cognitions should, therefore, be considered in both future models of the relationship between perfectionism and athlete burnout, as well as interventions aimed at reducing perfectionism fuelled burnout.     

Development of perfectionism in junior athletes: Examination of actual and perceived parental perfectionism

ABSTRACT

Initial research suggests that parental perfectionism is central to the development of athlete perfectionism. However, it is unclear whether perceived or actual parental perfectionism is most important. The present study aimed to address this issue in two ways. First, we re-examined the predictive ability of actual versus perceived parental perfectionism on athlete perfectionism. Second, for the first time, we tested whether perceived parental perfectionism mediated the relationship between actual parental perfectionism and athlete perfectionism. A sample of 150 junior athletes and their parents completed measures of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns). Junior athletes completed two measures, one of their own perfectionism and one of perceptions of their parents’ perfectionism. Parents completed one measure of their own perfectionism. Regression analyses showed that perceived parental perfectionism predicted athlete perfectionism over and above actual parental perfectionism. Mediation analyses provided support for our proposed model. Overall, the findings suggest that both actual and perceived parental perfectionism are important in the development of perfectionism in junior athletes.     

优秀女子400米栏运动员栏间节奏特征分析

本文采用文献资料调研、对比分析等研究方法,分析国内外优秀女子400m栏运动员合理地分配全程速度,栏间步数和变换摆腿的能力等因素。发现我国女子400m栏运动员在速度分配和运动节奏方面与国外优秀运动员存在较大差异,对相关因素进行进一步探讨研究,为提高我国在该项目上的成绩贡献绵薄之力。     

Tracing the origins of athlete development models in sport: a citation path analysis

Reviews of the sport psychology literature have identified a number of models of athlete development in sport (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2001). However, minimal research has investigated the origins of knowledge from which each model was developed. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the influential texts responsible for providing the basis of athlete development models in sport. A citation path analysis of the sport psychology literature was used to generate a knowledge development path of seven athlete development models in sport. The analysis identified influential texts and authors in the conceptualization of athlete development. The population of 229 texts (articles, books, book chapters) was selected in two phases. Phase 1 texts were articles citing seven articles depicting models of athlete development (n=75). Phase 2 included texts cited three or more times by Phase 1 articles (n=154). The analysis revealed how the scholarship of Benjamin Bloom (1985) has been integrated into the field of sport psychology, and how two articles appearing in 1993 and 2003 helped shape present conceptualizations of athlete development.     

Competitive Trait Anxiety in Male and Female College Athletes

Abstract

This study investigated issues related to competitive trait anxiety (CTA) among university varsity athletes. Sixty-four male and 64 female athletes completed the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and an 18-item questionnaire. The questionnaire measured fear of failure, fear of evaluation, importance of sport success, success/failure in sport, and satisfaction with sport experiences. It was hypothesized that these issues would be significantly related to CTA. Questionnaire responses were factor analyzed, and the four resultant factors were entered into a regression analysis of males' and females' SCAT scores. A fear of failure scale (performance worries items) and a fear of evaluation scale (expectancy of criticism items) were significantly related to males' SCAT scores (R² = .22). Only the fear of failure scale was significantly related to the females' SCAT scores (R² = .24). Results support the proposed relationships of fear of failure and fear of evaluation to CTA, but also suggest that the pattern of these relationships varies across age, gender, sport, and other variables.