Attitudes mediate the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment in China

This research aimed to examine the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment and the role of parents’ attitudes toward corporal punishment in the transmission processes in Chinese societies. Based on social-cognitive theory, it was hypothesized that parents' attitudes toward corporal punishment would mediate the transmission of corporal punishment. Seven hundred and eighty-five fathers and eight hundred and eleven mothers with elementary school-age children (data collected in winter 2009) were recruited through convenience sampling techniques. The Chinese version of Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) and Attitude toward Physical Punishment Scale (ATPP) were used as the main assessment tools to measure parents' corporal punishment experiences in childhood, current use of corporal punishment and attitudes toward corporal punishment. Findings revealed that the strength of intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment was strong and parents' attitudes toward corporal punishment played a mediating role in the continuity of corporal punishment for both fathers and mothers in China. The findings highlighted the role of attitudes in the intergenerational transmission of corporal punishment within the Chinese cultural context and also suggested the need for intervention programs to focus on modification of maladaptive attitudes toward what is appropriate and effective discipline.     

Using Bayesian analysis to examine associations between spanking and child externalizing behavior across race and ethnic groups

While corporal punishment is widely understood to have undesirable associations with children's behavior problems, there remains controversy as to whether such effects are consistent across different racial or ethnic groups. We employed a Bayesian regression analysis, which allows for the estimation of both similarities and differences across groups, to study whether there are differences in the relationship of corporal punishment and children’s behavior problems using a diverse, urban sample of U.S. families (n = 2653). There is some moderation of the relationship between corporal punishment and child behavior by race or ethnicity. However, corporal punishment is associated with increases in behavior problems for all children. Thus, our findings add evidence from a new analytical lens that corporal punishment is consistently linked to increased externalizing behavior across African American, White, or Hispanic children, even after earlier externalizing behavior is controlled for. Our findings suggest that corporal punishment has detrimental consequences for all children and that all parents, regardless of their racial or ethnic background, should be advised to use alternatives to corporal punishment.     

A cross-cultural examination of use of corporal punishment on children: a focus on Sweden and the United States

It appears that Sweden and the United States may be a study in contrasts regarding the sanction and use of corporal punishment on children. A 1979 study of American parents noted that 81% of them employed corporal punishment with children. A different study done in Sweden in 1978 noted that only 26% of parents used corporal punishment with children. What points to the differences in these parenting patterns within the two countries? In addition, a 1977 U.S. Supreme Court case entitled Ingraham vs. Wright ruled that “schools are empowered to carry out corporal punishment.” This court case involved two high school boys in Florida who had been repeatedly struck with wooden paddles. In contrast, Sweden had statutes which prohibited corporal punishment of children in their secondary schools as early as the 1920s. In 1957, the country passed a law which defined corporal punishment as unacceptable for small children in the schools. Then, in 1979, the Swedish government passed a statute prohibiting corporal punishment by parents. Are there differences in the way the two countries view law and its uses? Or, do the cultures sanction violence in general or just violence against children in different ways? This article examines some of the similarities and differences found in American and Swedish treatment of children and proposes what appear to be extreme differences in the way the countries and their people approach corporal punishment.     

"I've tried the switch but he laughs through the tears:" the use and conceptualization of corporal punishment during the Machine Age, 1924-1939

OBJECTIVE: To examine attitudes, conflicts, images, circumstances, and time-period effects associated with corporal punishment and other forms of adult-to-child violence during the early 20th century in the United States. METHOD: A sample of 147 letters, referencing corporal punishment and dating from 1924 to 1939, were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The letters were addressed to Angelo Patri (1876-1965), a popular child-rearing expert during the interwar years (also known as the Machine Age), and written primarily by middle class parents with everyday worries about child rearing and proper discipline. RESULTS: People who sought advice emphasized the practical significance of corporal punishment over and above the idea that it violated children's rights to be protected against harm. One in four letters cited conflicts with significant others about corporal punishment. Generally, children were perceived as frail, defiant, or feral. Rarely, were they seen as devilish or, conversely, innocent. Children's disobedience and disrespect were cited more than other misbehaviors as reasons for corporal punishment. Age and gender of the focal child varied by time period when letters from the 1920s and 1930s were compared. CONCLUSIONS: A full understanding of parent-to-child violence cannot be achieved without a firm grasp of its genealogy. The growing popularity of child psychology during the Machine Age had a measurable impact on how children were viewed. A utilitarian frame of interpretation was an important part of the everyday "work" associated with child rearing during this time, foreshadowing the tendency today to emphasize efficacy more than rights when evaluating the legitimacy of corporal punishment.     

Understanding the mediating role of corporal punishment in the association between maternal stress,efficacy, co-parenting and children's adjustment difficulties among Arab mothers

This study, guided by the Family Systems Theory, examines the direct effect of maternal use of corporal punishment on children's adjustment difficulties. Also, it explores whether corporal punishment serves as a mediating factor in the relationship between several maternal characteristics, marital relationships, and children's adjustment difficulties. A total of 2,447 Arab mothers completed anonymous, structured, self-report questionnaires. The use of corporal punishment was generally strongly supported by the Arab mothers in our sample. A greater likelihood of using corporal punishment was found among mothers of boys rather than girls, among mothers with lower perceived self-efficacy to discipline children, and among mothers with a lower perception of their husbands’ participation in child-related labor. In addition, the higher a mother's reports on disagreement with her husband about discipline methods and the stronger her level of maternal stress, the more likely she was to use corporal punishment. Corporal punishment also mediated the association between the above mentioned factors and child adjustment difficulties. Furthermore, a husband's emotional support and family socioeconomic status were directly associated to children's adjustment difficulties. The results of the current study emphasize the need to observe children's development within the context of their family systems and to consider the mutual influences of different subsystems such as marital relationships and mother–child interactions. Prevention and intervention programs should raise parents’ awareness concerning the harmful effects of corporal punishment and take into account the impact of dynamic transactions of parental conflicts and disagreements regarding discipline methods on child outcomes.     

Corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children

The adverse effect of harsh corporal punishment on mental health and psychosocial functioning in children has been repeatedly suggested by studies in industrialized countries. Nevertheless, corporal punishment has remained common practice not only in many homes, but is also regularly practiced in schools, particularly in low-income countries, as a measure to maintain discipline. Proponents of corporal punishment have argued that the differences in culture and industrial development might also be reflected in a positive relationship between the use of corporal punishment and improving behavioral problems in low-income nations. In the present study we assessed the occurrence of corporal punishment at home and in school in Tanzanian primary school students. We also examined the association between corporal punishment and externalizing problems. The 409 children (52% boys) from grade 2 to 7 had a mean age of 10.49 (SD = 1.89) years. Nearly all children had experienced corporal punishment at some point during their lifetime both in family and school contexts. Half of the respondents reported having experienced corporal punishment within the last year from a family member. A multiple sequential regression analysis revealed that corporal punishment by parents or by caregivers was positively related to children's externalizing problems. The present study provides evidence that Tanzanian children of primary school age are frequently exposed to extreme levels of corporal punishment, with detrimental consequences for externalizing behavior. Our findings emphasize the need to inform parents, teachers and governmental organizations, especially in low-income countries, about the adverse consequences of using corporal punishment be it at home or at school.     

中小学教师体罚行为论析

我国颁布的多部教育法律法规都明确规定,禁止教师体罚和变相体罚学生,但在教育理论和实践中,对什么是体罚和变相体罚,一直存在模糊的认识,从而导致部分教师仍继续犯体罚学生的错误,而另一部分教师又不敢大胆地管学生,甚至放任学生,降低自己工作的责任心。所以,必须明确处罚、体罚、直接体罚、间接体罚(变相体罚)以及侮辱学生人格的处罚等概念的内涵及其相互关系,同时,还必须明确,禁止教师体罚学生是教育发展和人类进步的要求,以杜绝中小学教师的体罚行为。     

Responding to Academic Freedom

W. Richard Bond's “Zero Tolerance: A New Enemy of Academic Freedom?,” Michael Kubara's “Academic Freedom,” and Fred Wilson's “In Defence of Speech Codes” included in the Symposium published in Interchange, Volume 27, #2, 1996, deal with the role and importance of academic freedom in Canadian universities and the pressures both within and without the academy for its attenuation. Although the Bond paper begins with the recent controversy in Ontario universities over the attempted introduction of a policy of zero tolerance of harassment and discrimination, it quickly moves to a summary of the traditional position regarding academic freedom in which that right is balanced by a corresponding responsibility. As insistent as Bond on the importance of academic freedom, Kubara and Wilson both approach the topic in a more argumentative fashion. Kubara and Wilson differ, however, in the kinds of arguments they propound. Kubara defends the traditional liberal conception of the university and attacks what he regards as the trendy feminist attack on academic freedom. Wilson recognizes that along with the rights bestowed by the acceptance of the principle of academic freedom is an obligation to engage in rational debate. The mechanism in Wilson's view for ensuring such debate is a well-crafted speech code in which professionally unacceptable speech acts are unambiguously defined. The fundamental difference between these two positions is that, whereas Kubara advocates an academic discourse that is as unfettered as is permissible within the law, Wilson proposes stricter limitations. I will discuss the Bond, Kubara, and Wilson papers in turn, commenting briefly on their positions. I will then present my own position on academic freedom and speech codes.     

Exploring the reciprocal relations between mothers’ and fathers’ use and attitudes of corporal punishment in China: A cross-lagged analysis

BackgroundCorporal punishment is a commonly used form of disciplinary technique. Sanctified parental attitudes of corporal punishment have been found to be a significant predictor of parental use of corporal punishment in previous research, while little is currently known about the reciprocal relations between parental use and their attitudes of corporal punishment.ObjectiveThis research aimed to examine the reciprocal relations between mothers’ and fathers’ use and attitudes of corporal punishment in China.MethodsData were collected on a total of 320 Chinese father-mother dyads with their children (10–11 years of age at baseline) through convenience sampling techniques at two time points, one year apart. Parents completed self-report measures of mothers' and fathers' use and attitudes of corporal punishment. Children completed self-report measures of parental corporal punishment.ResultsThe cross-lagged analysis indicated that parental attitudes of corporal punishment in a given year predicted their use of corporal punishment in the subsequent year both for mothers (β = 0.15, p < .01) and fathers (β = 0.10, p < .05), while their corporal punishment in a given year did not predict their attitudes of it in the subsequent year (βs < 0.11, ps > .05).ConclusionsFindings indicate that the reciprocal relations do not emerge, with only attitude-behavior effects being evident for both mothers and fathers, while behavior-attitude effects were not present. Findings in the present study highlight the importance of changing both mothers’ and fathers’ favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment when conducting appropriate prevention intervention to decrease its use.     

Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children's cognitive performance and school adjustment

This study examined how a range of physical punishment measures, ranging from mild corporal punishment to physical abuse, are associated with cognitive performance, school engagement, and peer isolation over a 3- year span among 658 children initially observed between the ages of 8 and 14. Physical punishment was captured in three groups: mild corporal punishment, harsh corporal punishment, and physical abuse, and both caregiver- and child-reported punishment measures were considered. After accounting for socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, only Ninitial exposure to physical abuse was significantly associated with declines in cognitive performance. However, all forms of physical punishment were associated with declines in school engagement, and harsh corporal punishment was associated with increased peer isolation. Our findings were relatively consistent regardless of whether physical punishment was reported by the child or caregiver. Overall, our findings suggest that the prevention of physical abuse may enhance children's cognitive performance, but that alone may not be sufficient to ensure children are engaged and well-adjusted in school.     

美国公立学校体罚的判例与法理--英格瑞罕诉莱特案的宪法分析

公立学校体罚在当今美国仍然是一个充满争议的话题.1977年英格瑞罕诉莱特案中,联邦最高法院基于对宪法修正案第八条和第十四条的解释,确认了体罚的合宪性,赋予各州自行决定体罚政策的权力.这一判决不仅在司法上构成类似案件的先例,更直接造就了各州法律对体罚存废态度不一的现状.保护儿童权利的诉求使得废除体罚运动开始兴起,并与美国学校体罚的传统产生了激烈冲突.在二者相持不下的局面下,一种主张改革学校教育以逐步消除体罚的实践开始出现,为消除体罚难题开辟了新的道路.     

Nostalgia for a beating: discipline,generational authority and corporal punishment at a Soweto High School,c.1960–2000

This paper focuses on the now-discarded practice of corporal punishment at Morris Isaacson High School, an important public school in Soweto. Corporal punishment, widely accepted by both students and parents, was central to the disciplinary regime of the school during the 1960s and 1970s. ‘Morris’ was one of the very few high schools in Soweto to remain open and functional during the turbulent 1980s; some argue that it was the rigid discipline that allowed the school to survive in a context of generational upheaval. During the late 1980s and early 1990s pressure mounted on the educational authorities to abolish corporal punishment until it was eventually outlawed under the new constitution in 1996. Though many saw this an important victory for human dignity, there remains a very popular nostalgic narrative that blames the abolition of corporal punishment for the collapse of school discipline in the democratic era.     

刑讯逼供与刑事错案防范浅析

刑讯逼供往往酿铸一切刑事错案,造成对被追诉人的巨大伤害。要防范刑讯逼供,还需要从理念与体制上进行创新,主要包括牢固树立人本主义理念、确立无罪推定思维、构建"以客观性证据为中心"的侦查模式和合理控制侦查权。     

Unruly Desires and a Love Worth Wanting: A serious look at Wilson's

In this paper I appraise John Wilson's ideal of (erotic) love between equals. Although I allow that the ideal is intriguing, one that leads to good conversation (in bed and out of it), in the end it is one I cannot endorse. My assessment of Wilson's ideal focuses on queries about who can count as equals and who takes responsibility for whose unruly sexual desires. I also note a particular moral peril associated with his ideal of intimacy. I find this peril in Wilson's suspicion of appeals to self-respect and integrity as grounds for refusing to meet sexual demands.     

Gendering corporal punishment: beyond the discourse of human rights

In the last few years the Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children has been gathering momentum, with a submission to The United Nations Secretary General’s study on violence against children the most recent addition to the cause. Nevertheless, corporal punishment in schools is still condoned in many countries and its practice persists even where it is now illegal. However, it is usually discussed within a gender‐‘neutral’ human rights framework rather than being more usefully considered as a gendered practice, pivotal in sustaining the gender regimes of schools. Drawing primarily on an ethnographic study in four junior secondary schools in Botswana, in conjunction with other related studies in Sub‐Saharan Africa, it is argued that corporal punishment is gendered at the level of both policy and practice. Female and male students and teachers understand and experience the ‘giving’ and ‘receiving’ of corporal punishment differently as gender interacts with, and often takes precedence over, age and authority relations. Understanding corporal punishment as a gendered practice has important implications for how its persistence in schools might be more successfully addressed as part of the current drive to achieve the Millennium Development and Education for All Goals in relation to universal primary education and gender equality.     

Secondary School Teachers’ Perception of Corporal Punishment: A Case Study in India

This article examines secondary school teachers’ perceptions of corporal punishment in India. Although it has been banned in Indian schools, various types of corporal punishment are still used by teachers. It has been mainly used as a mechanism for controlling disciplinary problems in schools. Based on a pilot study of 160 secondary teachers, the result of the research reveals that teachers still perceive corporal punishment as an effective method of controlling indiscipline in class. However, some teachers state that corporal punishment is ineffective in deterring students from misbehaving. Corporal punishment is not a good method to maintain discipline. Adopting harsh methods indicates a lack of proper training in managing students in a classroom situation and a poor understanding by the teachers of students’ mental states. An awareness program for secondary school teachers about the effects of corporal punishment on children is needed. The solution is proper training for teachers and student-teachers in the use of counseling to manage behavioral problem. Also full-time counselors can be appointed in schools.     

John Wilson and the Place of Morality in Education

This paper asks whether it would be better not to talk about morality in schools. The issue is raised through a consideration of changes in public discourse and especially in educational discourse, where categories such as ''personal, social and health education'' and ''citizenship education'' are more salient than ''moral education''. Drawing on John Wilson's arguments, the paper considers claims for the indispensability of the concept of morality. It is argued that such claims, in Wilson's own writings, are applied to both an ''individual'' and a ''social'' conception of morality. Contrary to Wilson, the paper argues that the ''wisest strategy'' for public education is to take the social conception of ''morality in the narrow sense'' as a central focus.     

“功能比较”视阈下教育体罚权论争

体罚一直是各国立法的热点和难点问题,我国经历了百年废除体罚艰难,到如今却仍举步维艰。基于对传统文化同情的理解,深刻领会他国对于体罚问题的观点和价值判断后发现,我国体罚制度从实体制度到程序规制的整体缺失是我国体罚权论争的结症所在。为了巩固废除体罚的成果,我们势必要思考如何定纷止争;如何在实现禁止体罚的同时,不削弱教师的管理权。     

Corporal punishment in schools: myths, problems and alternatives

In many countries, corporal punishment of school children continues to be an officially or unofficially sanctioned form of institutional child abuse. Continuing support for the use of corporal punishment is related to the following factors: (1) widely held beliefs regarding the effectiveness of corporal punishment, (2) an unawareness of problems resulting from the use of physical punishment, and (3) a lack of knowledge about effective disciplinary alternatives. The purpose of this paper is threefold: One is to show that many of the beliefs are myths, e.g., corporal punishment is not needed to build character. The second purpose is to show that physical punishment can lead to more problems than it appears to solve, e.g., the punitive teacher is avoided, and thus, is not a positive factor in the child's education and development. The third purpose is to discuss two types of alternatives to punishment, the social learning approach and communication skills training. These positive methods of discipline not only enhance classroom behavior, but also facilitate learning. In an atmosphere free of abusing and demeaning acts and in a classroom characterized by positive mutual regard, teachers can maximize their effectiveness as teachers and students can maximize their effectiveness as learners.     

论体罚产生的原因和禁止措施

教师体罚学生事件多次见诸报端，受到社会大众的广泛关注。关于体罚现象的教育理论研究严重缺位，以及由此导致的教师教育和制度建设的滞后乃是体罚现象屡禁不止的深层原因。要想彻底禁止体罚，必须在重视理论研究的上，加强教师教育和制度建设。．