Preparing the Next Generation of Science Teacher Educators: A Model for Developing PCK for Teaching Science Teachers

Science education doctoral programs often fail to address a critical piece—the explicit attention to the preparation of future science teacher educators. In this article, we argue that, in addition to developing skills and a knowledge base for research, doctoral students must be given the opportunity to observe, practice, and reflect on the pedagogical knowledge necessary to instruct science teachers. In particular, we contend that the construct of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) can be adapted to the context of knowledge for teaching science teachers. We use the PCK construct to propose a model for the development of knowledge for teaching science teachers, grounded in our experiences as doctoral students and faculty mentors. We end by recommending a vision for doctoral preparation and a new standard to be included in the ASTE Professional Knowledge Standards for Science Teacher Educators.     

Pedagogical Content Knowledge Development and Pre-Service Physics Teacher Education: A Case Study

This paper addresses the question of how to develop prospective teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in science teacher education. The main focus is on the knowledge transformation process and on the cognitive strategies used to shift prospective teachers' explanations within the domain of modelling thermal physical phenomena. This study investigates the development of PCK within a group of 28 pre-service physics teachers during the first semester of their two-year post-graduate teacher education program. It focuses on the central issue of the relationships between observable phenomena, like macroscopic thermal properties of matter and their interpretation and/or explanation in terms of corpuscular characteristics and/or thermodynamics theory. The strategy is based on the consideration that knowledge transformation is not a one-way process from subject matter knowledge to pedagogical content knowledge, as literature suggests, but a bidirectional process involving deepening of subject matter knowledge and increasing awareness of pedagogical issues.     

Mathematics Teaching as a Deliberate Practice: An Investigation of Elementary Pre-service Teachers' Reflective Thinking During Student Teaching

In this case study I examine the reflectivepractices of two elementary pre-serviceteachers during their student teachinginternship. I extend current views ofreflective practice to create a framework for a`deliberate practitioner'. With this framework,I investigate the pre-service teachers'thinking with regard to reflective processesand how they use their pedagogical contentknowledge in their practices. My findingsindicate that the pre-service teachers usetheir pedagogical content knowledge inanticipating problematic events, and inreflecting on problematic events ininstruction. However, limits in pedagogicalcontent knowledge and lack of confidence impedethe pre-service teachers' reflection while inthe act of teaching. They were more likely toreflect on their practices outside of the actof teaching. Implications for teacher educatorsand pre-service teachers are discussed.     

The distribution of pedagogical content knowledge in Cambodia: Gaps and thresholds in math achievement

Increasing teacher quality is a major objective of recent Cambodian education policy. In mathematics education literature, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has emerged as a critical component of teacher quality that is strongly linked to student achievement. In this study I use data from a large survey of Cambodian schools to investigate the effect of math teachers’ PCK on third grade student achievement. I use ordinary least squares and Quantile Regression analyses to examine this aspect of teacher quality. I find that pedagogical knowledge is a strong predictor of student math achievement in Cambodia in comparison to other student, school, and background variables, but that the effect is concentrated among higher achieving students. Quantile Regression with this dataset also exposes gaps and thresholds in achievement associated with other explanatory variables. In addition, I investigate the proportional distribution of teacher PCK in Cambodia and find that lower quality teachers are more likely to be teaching lower achieving students of lower socioeconomic status.     

Curricular Space Allocated for Dance Content in Physical Education Teacher Education Programs: A Literature Review

This literature review examines curricular space allocated to activity based/movement content courses in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) pre-service programs, specifically focusing on how dance content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge are addressed within those programs. This review includes original empirical research conducted on PETE pre-service programs and graduates within the United States after 1990. The review defines “activity based/movement content knowledge course” as any course in which students learn the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to engage in or perform a particular sport, game, dance or other physical activity. Only one study within the review of nine total studies focuses solely on dance content within PETE pre-service programs. This review also analyzes the placement of dance content knowledge within the Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America) Grade Level Outcomes for K–12 Physical Education (PE). Suggestions are made for future research and methodological considerations for dance content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in PETE pre-service programs.     

Cultivating sacred spaces: a racial affinity group approach to support critical educators of color

ABSTRACT

Despite repeated pleas for diversifying the U.S. teacher force, teachers of color who are committed to social justice are often unsupported and even pushed out via structural, interpersonal, and pedagogical obstacles within the profession. In response to neoliberal, colorblind, and apolitical approaches to teacher development and support, educators and organizers have reclaimed and reframed their pedagogies through critical professional development and grassroots activism to center healing from the impacts of oppression in its myriad forms . The ethnographic case study in this article examines how, over the course of three years, a grassroots racial affinity group became an important space for learning and healing for its members. I explain how the group explicitly centered twelve members’ voices, needs, and collective knowledge, and in so doing: (a) collectively cultivated a critical, humanizing, and healing space for their sustainability; and (b) navigated various positions within socially toxic education institutions and organizations. I conclude by discussing how and why critical racial affinity spaces for educators of color are necessary in order to support their personal, political, relational, and pedagogical growth, which has implications on their retention and leadership within the field.     

The impact of physics teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and motivation on students’ achievement and interest

This paper examines students’ achievement and interest and the extent to which they are predicted by teacher knowledge and motivation. Student achievement and interest are both considered desirable outcomes of school instruction. Teacher pedagogical content knowledge has been identified a major predictor of student achievement in previous research, whereas teacher motivation is considered a decisive factor influencing students’ interest. So far, however, most research either focused on knowledge or motivation (both on the students’ as well as the teachers’ side), rarely investigating them together or examining the instructional mechanisms through which the supposed effects of teacher knowledge and motivation are facilitated. In the present study, N = 77 physics teachers and their classes in Germany and Switzerland are investigated utilizing a multi‐method approach in combining data obtained from test‐instruments (teacher pedagogical content knowledge, student achievement) and questionnaires (teacher motivation, student interest, student perceived enthusiastic teaching) as well as videotaped instruction (cognitive activation rated by observers). Multi‐level structural equation modeling was used to support the assumptions that teacher pedagogical content knowledge positively predicted students’ achievement; the effect was mediated by cognitive activation. Teachers’ motivation predicted students’ interest which was mediated by enthusiastic teaching as perceived by students. Neither did teacher pedagogical content knowledge predict students’ interest, nor teacher motivation students’ achievement. This implies that in order to improve students’ cognitive as well as affective outcomes, both teachers’ knowledge but also their motivation need to be considered. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Research in Science Teaching Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 54:586–614, 2017     

Teachers’ pedagogical reasoning and action in the digital age

Beginning teachers are entering the profession with increasing confidence in their ability to use digital technologies which has the potential to change the way teachers of the future make pedagogical decisions. This paper explores how pedagogical reasoning and action might occur in the digital age, comparing Schulman’s 1987 model with the reality for a small sample of digitally able beginning teachers as part of the emerging generation of teachers. The latter were examined through a multiple case study during their first year of teaching as they made decisions about using digital technologies within their teaching practice which gave an insight into pedagogical reasoning and action through the use of open‐ended interviews and observation. The conclusion drawn is that while the pedagogical reasoning and action model remains relevant, it was based on an assumption that teaching involves knowledge being passed from a teacher to their students, which was found to restrict innovation by digitally able teachers. A broader interpretation of knowledge and teaching within this model building on emerging learning theory could help reform practice once again, providing a framework for teachers in the digital age.     

Positive and Negative Facets of Formal Group Mentoring: Preservice Teacher Perspectives

The use of mentoring within teacher education has become more common in recent years, however, there still seems to be a lack of research about formal group mentorship models as a pedagogical process. In my study, I presented knowledge about how a formal group mentorship model used during a teacher education program at a Swedish university has affected the student teachers’ professional development. The findings suggest that nearly all the student teachers describe the mentoring group conversations as beneficial as they have contributed to a strengthened socialization, identity and/or teacher role, a possibility to share experiences, hear others perspectives, and get support in the process of linking theoretical educational content and teaching activities. A few students expressed that the mentoring program has not contributed at all to their professional development.     

The Impact of Sustained, Standards-Based Professional Learning on Second and Third Grade Teachers’ Content and Pedagogical Knowledge in Integrated Mathematics

This 3 year longitudinal study reports the feasibility of an Improving Teacher Quality: No Child Left Behind project for impacting teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge in mathematics in nine Title I elementary schools in the southeastern United States. Data were collected for 3 years to determine the impact of standards and research-based teacher training on these aspects of teacher quality. Content knowledge for the scope of this research study refers to the knowledge that teachers have about subject matter. Teacher quality is directly related to teachers’ “highly qualified” status, as defined by the No Child Left Behind mandate. According to this mandate, every classroom should have a teacher qualified to teach in his subject area and be able to “raise the percentage of students who are proficient in reading and math, and in narrowing the test-score gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students.” Participants were six second grade and seven third grade teachers of mathematics from nine schools within one failing school district. The implementation of standards-based methods in the nine Title I Schools increased teacher quality in elementary school mathematics. In fact, qualitative and quantitative data revealed significant gains in teachers’ mathematics content and pedagogical knowledge at both grade levels.     

Teacher pedagogical content knowledge,practice, and student achievement†

ABSTRACT

In this exploratory study, we attempted to measure potential changes in teacher knowledge and practice as a result of an intervention, as well as trace such changes through a theoretical path of influence that could inform a model of teacher professional knowledge. We created an instrument to measure pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), studied the impact of a two-year professional development intervention, explored the relationships among teacher variables to attempt to validate a model of teacher professional knowledge, and examined the relationship of teacher professional knowledge and classroom practice on student achievement. Teacher professional knowledge and skill was measured in terms of academic content knowledge (ACK), general pedagogical knowledge (GenPK), PCK and teacher practice. Our PCK instrument identified two factors within PCK: PCK-content knowledge and PCK-pedagogical knowledge. Teacher gains existed for all variables. Only GenPK had a significant relationship to teacher practice. ACK was the only variable that explained a substantial portion of student achievement. Our findings provide empirical evidence that we interpret through the lens of the model of teacher professional knowledge and skill, including PCK [Gess-Newsome, J. (2015). A model of teacher professional knowledge and skill including PCK: Results of the thinking from the PCK summit. In A. Berry, P. Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran (Eds.), Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science education (pp. 28–42). London: Routledge Press], highlighting the complexity of measuring teacher professional knowledge and skill.     

On the alignment of teachers’ mathematical content knowledge assessments with the common core state standards

Instruments designed to measure teachers’ knowledge for teaching mathematics have been widely used to evaluate the impact of professional development and to investigate the role of teachers’ knowledge in teaching and student learning. These instruments assess a mixture of content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. However, little attention has been given to the content alignment between such instruments and curricular standards, particularly in regard to how content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge items are distributed across mathematical topics. This article provides content maps for two widely used teacher assessment instruments in the USA relative to the widely adopted Common Core State Standards. This common reference enables comparisons of content alignment both between the instruments and between parallel forms within each instrument. The findings indicate that only a small number of items on both instruments are designed to capture teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and that the majority of these items are focused on curricular topics in the later grades rather than in the early grades. Furthermore, some forms designed for use as pre- and post-assessment of professional development or teacher education are not parallel in terms of curricular topics, so estimates of teachers’ knowledge growth based on these forms may not mean what users assume. The implications of these findings for teacher educators and researchers who use teacher knowledge instruments are discussed.

     

Structure and development of pre-service physics teachers’ professional knowledge

ABSTRACT

Teachers’ professional knowledge is considered one of the most important predictors of instructional quality. According to Shulman, such professional knowledge includes content, pedagogical content and pedagogical knowledge. Although recent research shed some light on the structure of the dimensions of professional knowledge, little is known how teacher education impacts pre-service physics teachers’ professional knowledge. In an effort to address this issue, we examined the content, pedagogical content and pedagogical knowledge of N?=?200 pre-service physics teachers enrolled in different years of teacher education at 12 major teacher education universities in Germany. We used structural equation modelling (1) to examine the relations amongst pre-service physics teachers’ content, pedagogical content and pedagogical knowledge, (2) to explore how the three kinds of knowledge and their relations differ across different stages of teacher education and (3) to identify factors affecting the level of each component of professional knowledge. Our findings suggest that content, pedagogical content and pedagogical knowledge represent distinct types of knowledge. Furthermore, our findings show that in the first years of professional education, pedagogical content knowledge is more closely related with general pedagogical knowledge while in later years, it is more closely related with content knowledge, suggesting that it develops from a general knowledge about teaching and learning into knowledge about the teaching and learning of specific content. Finally, beyond school achievement and years of enrolment as predictors, we find in particular the amount of classroom observations to have a positive impact on the professional knowledge of pre-service physics teachers.     

Content knowledge transformation: An examination of the relationship between content knowledge and curricula

Theories associated with teacher knowledge suggest that teachers transform subject content knowledge into pedagogical content knowledge in teaching to enhance the content comprehensibility. It is assumed that the connection between teacher content knowledge and curriculum is characterized by the content knowledge transformation. This study, using an interpretive research method combined with cognitive knowledge elicitation and mapping approaches, examined the subject-pedagogical content knowledge transformation process that was associated with the teachers' curricular decision-making in secondary physical education. Findings indicated that the teachers shared a common subject content knowledge base but demonstrated a personalized pedagogical content knowledge repertoire, suggesting that the teachers' pedagogical content knowledge was personally constructed even though they shared a subject content knowledge base. The classroom curriculum was closely connected to the pedagogical content knowledge base. In addition, the teachers' curricular decisions regarding content inclusion/exclusion were primarily based on their perceptions of student learning abilities. The findings may imply that enhancement of prospective teachers' pedagogical content knowledge should be emphasized in teacher preparation programs because it serves as a bridge linking the subject content knowledge with the curriculum delivered in classrooms.     

Teacher pedagogical constructions: a reconfiguration of pedagogical content knowledge

A brief review of the history of pedagogical content knowledge reveals various definitions and conceptualizations of the construct, as well as some conceptual problems. A new conceptualization—teacher pedagogical constructions—is offered to address some of the problems associated with PCK. Seven assertions that comprise the new conceptualization are presented, explained and defended. These are: (1) PCK represents personal and private knowledge; (2) PCK is a collection of basic units called teacher pedagogical constructions; (3) teacher pedagogical constructions result mainly from planning, but also from the interactive and post‐active phases of teaching; (4) pedagogical constructions result from an inventive process that is influenced by the interaction of knowledge and beliefs from different categories; (5) pedagogical constructions constitute both a generalized event‐based and a story‐based kind of memory; (6) pedagogical constructions are topic specific; and (7) pedagogical constructions are (or should ideally be) labeled in multiple interesting ways that connect them to other categories and subcategories of teacher knowledge and beliefs. The proposed definition results from a reconceptualization of the nature of PCK as originally proposed, taking the results of major later studies and conceptualizations of PCK into consideration, appropriating new ideas about the structure of memory, and undertaking a reanalysis and presentation of data from a previous study. The article calls for viewing PCK as neither a subcategory of subject matter (subject matter knowledge for teaching) nor as a general generic form of knowledge. It presents a view of PCK as a collection of teacher professional constructions, as a form of knowledge that preserves the planning and wisdom of practice that the teacher acquires when repeatedly teaching a certain topic. Viewing PCK as a collection of TPCs, more precisely defining it, clarifying its relations to other knowledge and beliefs entities, and speculating about its development should facilitate future investigations of PCK.     

Exploring the Impact of Varying Degrees of Cognitive Conflict in the Generation of both Subject and Pedagogical Knowledge as Primary Trainee Teachers Learn about Shadow Formation

Primary teacher preparation courses to need support students in developing not only science content knowledge, but also pedagogical knowledge appropriate to the effective translation and representation of subject matter for learners in classrooms. In the case of the generalist primary trainee, this constitutes a considerable challenge. This study explored how a group of 13 primary trainees developed subject and pedagogical knowledge during university‐based training as they investigated shadow production in a variety of contexts using cognitive conflict as a strategy for promoting conceptual change. By using a metacognitive approach, students analysed their own learning in response to increasing depth of conflict within a series of shadow investigations. The results indicate that the depth of conflict perceived by the learners in this study was instrumental in inducing conceptual change and generating pedagogical insight within the domain of light.     

Pedagogy as Work: Educating the Next Generation of Literacy Teachers

What do new teachers need to know about literacy and how to teach it? Given the changing demographics of the teaching and teacher education workforce, the changing populations of young people, and the changing nature of literacy, what counts as essential pedagogical knowledge is increasingly open to question. In the midst of such complexity, many governments are taking a stronger position on normative standards for literacy and teacher training. Publishers have moved in to play key roles in the professional development of teachers on authorised approaches. The insider knowledge of generations of teachers is now under threat as large percentages of the teaching population head for retirement. In this article I argue that we need to radically rethink teacher education. Taking the case of literacy, I demonstrate the kinds of pressures and doubts experienced by many teachers about their knowledge and practice. I offer some recommendations for educating the next generation of literacy teachers, which are informed by historical, political, demographic, and futures analyses of the contemporary scene.     

Open attitudes,attribution beliefs,and knowledge of Hong Kong teacher interns in an era of education reform

We have investigated how open attitudes, attribution beliefs, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge were related to teaching performance among teacher interns. The participants were 72 teacher interns in Hong Kong, where large-scale education reform has been launched since 2000. Multiple methods (self-report, academic grades, and ratings from mentors and supervisors) were used to measure the interns' attribution beliefs, open attitudes, pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and teaching performance. It was found that their openness to advice and challenges, effort attribution for failure, and pedagogical content knowledge were positively associated with their teaching performance in an era of education reform.     

Exploring the role of TPACK and teacher self-efficacy: an ethnographic case study of three iPad language arts classes

This ethnographic research study investigated three elementary teachers’ perceived self-efficacy beliefs and their attitudes toward mobile technology-enhanced instruction. Using technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) as a guiding theory, the authors sought to determine whether and how the three knowledge components that form the foundation of the TPACK framework– technological, pedagogical or content knowledge – have similar levels of influence on teachers’ language arts teaching practices. They also examined how each teacher incorporated iPad technologically enhanced pedagogical practices and made connections to their beliefs about the role of technology and education. Data collection consisted of classroom observation field notes, teacher interviews and teacher blogs. Findings reveal that the teachers’ attitudes toward the integration of iPad technology formed a basis for how they approached their pedagogy. Compared to their technological and content knowledge, teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and years of teaching experience strongly influenced their decisions regarding mobile technology integration. By the end of the study, all teachers identified stronger connections and awareness in relation to the components of TPACK. The implications of these findings will provide insight relevant to the development of professional development opportunities for teachers regarding TPACK that could ultimately lead to more successful technology integration by teachers.     

Strategies for mentoring pedagogical knowledge

Fundamental for mentoring a preservice teacher is the mentor’s articulation of pedagogical knowledge, which in this research draws upon specific practices, viz.: planning, timetabling lessons, preparation, teaching strategies, content knowledge, problem solving, questioning, classroom management, implementation, assessment and viewpoints for teaching. Mentoring is haphazard; consequently, mentors need a pedagogical knowledge framework and a repertoire of pedagogical knowledge strategies to guide a preservice teacher’s development. Yet, what are strategies for mentoring pedagogical knowledge practices? This qualitative research investigates mentoring strategies assigned to pedagogical knowledge from 27 experienced mentor teachers. Findings showed that there were multiple strategies that can be linked to specific pedagogical knowledge practices. For example, mentoring strategies associated with planning for teaching can include co-planning, verbally reflecting on planning with the mentee and showing examples of the mentor teacher’s planning (e.g. teacher’s plans, school plans, district and state plans). This article provides a bank of practical strategies for mentoring pedagogical knowledge practices to assist a preservice teacher’s development.