Moving Fiercely Linear Preservice Teachers into the Joys of Integrating Art in the Classroom: An Artist Residency in a University Early Childhood and Special Education Program

How can artist residencies for preservice teachers plant seeds for future classrooms? Teacher educators and a teaching artist describe a two-tiered residency in an early childhood and special education program that transformed preservice teachers' attitudes toward visual art and arts integration. Findings are based on teaching artist and instructor reflections as well as a qualitative analysis of student journal entries. Preservice teachers who had no prior art training and were resistant toward abstract painting began to enjoy it and appreciate the value of art for children's learning. They came to recognize visual art as a tool to support social development and children with special needs, understood the importance of process in children's art experiences, and considered ways to integrate art throughout the curriculum. We urge teacher educators and teaching artists to incorporate artist residencies into teacher education programs to prepare future teachers to integrate the arts into the classrooms of tomorrow.     

Using science songs to enhance learning: an interdisciplinary approach

Music is recognized as an effective mode of teaching young children but is rarely used in university-level science courses. This article reviews the somewhat limited evidence on whether and how content-rich music might affect college students' understanding of science and offers practical suggestions for incorporating music into courses. Aside from aiding memorization, songs may potentially improve learning by helping students feel relaxed and welcome in stressful settings, engaging students through multiple modes (verbal vs. nonverbal) and modalities (auditory vs. visual vs. kinesthetic) simultaneously, challenging students to integrate and "own" the material through the medium of song lyrics, and increasing students' time on task outside of class through enjoyable listening or songwriting assignments. Students may produce content-rich songs of good quality if given sufficient assistance and encouragement by instructors and peers. The challenges ahead include 1) defining the circumstances in which music is most likely to promote learning and 2) developing rubrics for evaluating the quality of songs.     

The Sensitivity of Children and Adults as Tutors

In view of conflicting claims about children's sensitivity to the needs of other children in learning situations, the present study was designed to explore the sensitivity of child and adult tutors in one‐to‐one tutoring interactions. Sixteen adults and 31 11‐ and 9‐year‐olds tutored 47 9‐year‐old tutees on an animal classification task. Tutors were tested on their ability to apply the rules and knowledge they had obtained after training, and tutees were tested after being tutored. On all the verbal and nonverbal tutoring indices adult tutors showed greater sensitivity than child tutors: they were more likely to display behaviours which promoted efficient learning in their tutees. Results suggested that tutors operated on the basis of an implicit theory of teaching which involves three types of sensitivity: (1) sensitivity to the learner's need to have sufficient information for understanding the task, coupled with adequate checks on the learner's understanding; (2) sensitivity to the learner's need to participate actively in the learning process; and (3) sensitivity to differences in learning abilities among individual learners, and being able to accommodate to them.     

Intention and Meaning in Young Children's Drawing

In this article I present some ideas, based on qualitative research into young children's drawing, related to the developing discourse on young children's thinking and meaning making. I question the relationship between perception and conception and the nature of representation, challenging traditional ideas around stage theory and shifting the focus from the drawings themselves to the process of drawing, and thus to the children's own purposes. I analyse examples of my observations (made in naturalistic settings within a nursery classroom) to reveal the range of representational purposes and meaning in children's drawing activity. My analysis shows that, rather than being developmentally determined, the way children configure their drawings is purposeful; children can recognise the power of drawing to represent, and that they themselves can be in control of this. I explore aspects of the process, including transformation and talk to show the importance of understanding drawing in its specific contexts. I show how children's drawing activity is illuminated by the way in which it occurs and the other activities linked to it, presenting drawing as part of children's broader, intentional, meaning‐making activity. As an aspect of the interactive, communicative practices through which children's thinking develops, representation is a constructive, self‐directed, intentional process of thinking in action, through which children bring shape and order to their experience, rather than a developing ability to make visual reference to objects in the world. I suggest that in playing with the process, children are actively defining reality rather than passively reflecting a given reality.     

The value of an emergent notion of authenticity: Examples from two student/teacher–scientist partnership programs

We make the case for an emergent notion of authenticity of science based on systems theory and neo‐Piagetian thought. We propose that authentic science is an emergent property of a dynamic system of learning precipitated by the interactions among students, teachers, and scientists that occur within the contexts defined by the internal and external constraints of the cultures of the schools and communities within which they operate. Authenticity as an emergent property of the learning process challenges the basis for many science curricula and current pedagogical practices that take scientists' science as their norm and that assume a priori that such is authentic, i.e., it practices preauthentication. We argue that what constitutes authentic science can be taught neither in the traditional didactic modes nor through simulations of scientists' science in the classroom. Instead, authenticity needs to be seen as emergent and as diverse in meaning. To illustrate this point, we draw from two different face‐to‐face, teacher/student–scientist partnership programs. Both studies support a notion of authenticity that emerges as teachers, students, and scientists come to interact, make meaning of, and come to own the activities they engage in collaboratively. We conclude by considering the implications of such an analysis for science education. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 40: 737–756, 2003     

Verbal and visual learning styles

Three studies are reported concerning the development of a questionnaire to assess verbal and visual learning styles. The test instrument is based upon Richardson's Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire (VVQ). In the first study, it is shown that the VVQ requires more than a single bipolar dimension, and that when two dimensions are extracted, the hypothesized visual dimension is defined mainly by dream vividness and is not related to self-reported mental imagery. In the second study, an expanded questionnaire is constructed to assess the verbal and dream dimensions located in the first study, as well as a visual dimension more related to mental imagery. Both the verbal and visual scales are designed to be more relevant to preferences in learning. The three scales are shown to possess adequate reliability and construct validity. In the third study, the correlations of the three scales with various mental abilities are explored: as hypothesized, the verbal learning style is most strongly correlated with verbal ability and the visual learning style with spatial visualization. Possible directions for future research are discussed: further validation of the three scales, investigation of the development of learning styles, and the use of the style scales in studies of learning.     

Materiality as an aspect in learning

In this paper we exemplify how a social semiotic approach to pupils’ multimodal texts (texts which draw on and make available to the senses a range of resources, including the visual, material, and actional) can provide a way into understanding learning. We suggest that learning can be seen as a transformative process of sign making. Specifically, we suggest that materiality (use of frame, shape, texture, colour, and imported objects) can be seen as one expression of how pupils engage with knowledge and learning. In order to demonstrate this we focus on year seven (11 year old) pupils’ visual representations of cells in two science classrooms at a London girls school. We argue that the range of representational resources available within visual communication (spatial relations, materiality, etc.) enabled the expression of kinds of meaning which would have been difficult, or perhaps impossible, in language. We conclude that visual and linguistic modes of expression have different potentials for meaning making, and therefore different potentials for learning.     

Can the Process of Transition for Incoming Secondary Pupils be Supported through a Creative Art Project?

Children's learning involves, in the simplest terms, assimilating knowledge and understanding and acquiring skills though being, doing and feeling. This requires a connection at a personal level. Furthermore, learning is given to fluctuation determined by the needs of the individual and the requirements of the educational system. This research project is concerned with the specific needs of pupils in the UK who undergo the process of transition between primary (Key Stage 2, age 7–11) and secondary schooling (Key Stage 3, age 11–16). It is at a time when there are reported increases of anxiety that affect pupils' self‐esteem where perhaps a different kind of learning is required. The project suggests that a modified curriculum will support the pupils' transformation, through a visual arts creative learning framework.     

Making mathematical meaning through dialogue: ``Once you think of it, the Z minus three seems pretty weird'

In our ongoing qualitative classroom research, we adopt a sociocultural perspective to investigate discourse, and its role in how children and teachers make meaning of mathematics in a fifth grade inquiry classroom. Our theoretical perspective draws primarily on Vygotsky (1978, 1986) and Bakhtin (1981, 1986) each of whom examines how social forms of meaning influence individual cognition. The episode described in this paper examines the process whereby individual and group developmental trajectories are constructed, and allows us to explore the relationship between discourse and knowing. We combine a longitudinal design with a case study approach to focus on the collaborative mathematical problem solving. We use video capture to help us listen to children's discussions in classroom activities and small group interactions. Our analysis of the verbal data recorded on video identifies patterns of interaction, development and change in participants' use of mathematical language and concepts, and their evolving understanding, through discussion and argument, of an algebraic expression constructed by one of the children. The findings lead us to argue for i) a more generative view of the zone of proximal development as a site of learning and of identity formation, ii) an expanded view of the role of the teacher in inquiry classrooms, and iii) an appreciation for the valuable roles difference and resistance play in knowledge building.     

“Oh,I have a story”: narrative as a teacher's classroom model

This paper examines the teaching practices of one American Indian teacher in a high school literature class. It explores the teacher's use of narrative as an instructional strategy designed to convey abstract concepts through concrete experience. The narratives engage students in critical thinking and personal reflection, and provide them with the opportunity to make connections between social and historical contexts. In addition, the teacher uses stories to contrast multiple contexts with personal experiences, which reflects teaching strategies previously identified as those used by effective teachers. There is evidence that sharing ideas and concepts through story is an important way of encouraging social relations and helping students make connections between what they are learning in school and what they know of the world. Based on data analysis, this study presents a model of the teacher's use of narrative as a strategy to pose critical questions, frame a context for discussion, encourage students to reflect on personal perspectives, and introduce ideas and concepts. The model provides a visual representation of the teacher's use of narrative as a way of clarifying course content, contextualizing meaning, and reinforcing understanding.     

Education,Poetry, and the Process of Growing Old

Should all generations be included in our society's educational project? In PEP (Prosjekt eldrepedagogikk), in Bergen, we argue that the concept of care for old people should be redefined to include an aspect of learning. This learning can have a creative and existential purpose, not necessarily an instrumental one. “To grow old” also has a meaning of growth. Education can strengthen this growth. Old people have mental, spiritual and creative needs. PEP has aimed at stimulating older people's verbal creativity through the writing of poetry and the telling of stories in groups. Many courses of this kind have been held during recent years. This learning activity has had a positive impact upon the life of the participants. The work has served to sharpen the senses, keep thinking alive, support self-esteem, and establish good social relations. Another fruit of the project is the publishing of texts. Both education and poetry can have a function of emancipation. As a consequence of this project, the University of Bergen has started a process where research on the education of the elderly will be put on its agenda.     

Making links: on situating a new web site

Visual ethnographers increasingly use hypermedia for research, representation and teaching and learning. This article discusses these uses by reflecting on Visualising ethnography, a teaching and learning ‘gateway’ web site about the visual in the ethnographic process housing interviews, authored works, exhibitions, introductory texts and links. Here I situate the web site in relation to other visual anthropology web sites, discuss key characteristics of hypermedia for teaching and learning and representation and analyze both how authors, the web developed and I constructed our contributions, and users' responses. Finally I discuss the role and potential of such web sites for contemporary representation, teaching and learning in visual ethnography. Many new web sites are developing; how might they ‘live together’ and interrelate online? And what are the implications for the sorts of teaching and learning sites that might be developed in the future?     

Representational Issues in Students Learning About Evaporation

This study draws on recent research on the central role of representation in learning. While there has been considerable research on students’ understanding of evaporation, the representational issues entailed in this understanding have not been investigated in depth. The study explored students’ engagement with evaporation phenomena through various representational modes. The study indicates how a focus on representation can provide fresh insights into the conceptual task involved in learning science through an investigation of students’ responses to a structured classroom sequence and subsequent interviews over a year. A case study of one child’s learning demonstrates the way conceptual advances are integrally connected with the development of representational modes. The findings suggest that teacher-mediated negotiation of representational issues as students construct different modal accounts can support enriched learning by enabling both (a) richer conceptual understanding by students, and (b) enhanced teacher insights into students’ thinking.     

自主学习：回归学习常理的教学优化

自主学习是新课程倡导的学习方式,是有效教学的重要途径,也是学习的本真所在。在区域层面上优化教学,就要将自主学习作为核心要义来实施,并通过教研部门与基层学校的互动来概括自主学习的公共策略,实现从自主学习的意识唤醒到自主学习习惯的强化。这些基于实践概括的策略贯穿于整个学习流程,教学优化则寄寓其中。     

体育学科CAI课件制作与运用研究—基于视觉传达理论

多媒体课件的视觉信息传达过程不仅是一个传递视觉信息的过程,也是学习者对呈现的视觉信息进行创造性的理解与把握,主动建构意义的过程。在体育学科CAI课件的视觉信息传达设计过程中,设计者除了要了解学生的目标需求以外,还应对体育学科特征进行了解。只有充分了解到这一点,才能提高多媒体课件质量,保证多媒体教学效果。     

Six Myths About Spatial Thinking

Visualizations are an increasingly important part of scientific education and discovery. However, users often do not gain knowledge from them in a complete or efficient way. This article aims to direct research on visualizations in science education in productive directions by reviewing the evidence for widespread assumptions that learning styles, sex differences, developmental stages, and spatial language determine the impact of visualizations on science learning. First, we examine the assumption that people differ in their verbal versus visual learning style. Due to the lack of rigorous evaluation, there is no current support for this distinction. Future research should distinguish between two different kinds of visual learning style. Second, we consider the belief that there are large and intractable sex differences in spatial ability resultant from immutable biological reasons. Although there are some spatial sex differences (in some types of spatial tests although not all), there is actually only very mixed support for biological causation. Most important, there is conclusive evidence that spatial skills can be improved through training and education. Third, we explore educators' use of Piaget's ideas about spatial development to draw conclusions about ‘developmental appropriateness’. However, recent research on spatial development has focused on identifying sequences that begin with early starting points of skill, and spatial education is possible in some form at all ages. Fourth, although spatial language does not determine spatial thought, it does frame attention in a way that can have impact on learning and understanding. We examine the empirical support for each assumption and its relevance to future research on visualizations in science education.     

Blended teaching and learning: a two-way systems approach

A first-year tertiary-student structural equation modelling approach builds understanding of blended learning. The Biggs' 3P teaching-and-learning-systems model displays significant two-way interactions between each of its presage, process and product constructs. This study validates the Biggs' approach as a dynamic interactive learning system. The student learning processes occur through teacher contributions, mixed with learning interactions and feedback systems. Greater learning, knowledge and skills transfer is possible when students are suitably pre-prepared/pre-skilled for their ensuing learning experiences and for the varieties of teaching/learning interactions that they encounter.     

Educating for Moral Ability: Reflections on moral development based on Vygotsky's theory of concept formation

The idea examined here is that the development of moral ability shares important similarities with the development of conceptual thinking as outlined in the work of Lev Vygotsky. Most notably, the mature forms of both processes are ways of constructing meaning that are not governed by pre-established modes of behaviour. The principal suggestion here is that Vygotsky's theory of concept formation can be used as a generative model for understanding the development of moral ability in a way that challenges the notion of morality as rule-following behaviour. Understanding moral ability as a present-centred aptitude for creating meaning carries a two-fold significance for educators: it is theoretically useful for understanding the learning process in the context of a fundamental or universal interdependency, and of practical value inasmuch as it focuses on the importance of learning to think and act in the here and now.     

'No Number Can Describe How Good It Was': Assessment issues in the multimodal classroom

Within an outcomes based educational system built on the principles of redress, social justice, multilingualism and multiculturalism, issues of equity in teaching, learning and assessment are increasingly on South Africa's educational agenda. This article locates itself within debates concerning the politics of representation in mainstream classrooms, in which written standard English is the dominant mode and language through which students' meanings are read and assessed. The authors, consisting of English and Art educators, have been implementing forms of 'multimodal pedagogies' in different classrooms in Johannesburg in a move to challenge the existing narrow constraints of representation permitted in mainstream schooling. Through a case study discussion of a multimodal project with disaffected Soweto youth, the authors argue that new criteria for assessment need to be developed in order to address the complexity of thinking about communication as a multiple semiotic practice and students as designers of meaning. Such criteria place human agency and resourcefulness at the centre of meaning-making, and focus on the recruitment of resources, generativity across modes, linkages and connections across modes and genres, voicing of self, community and culture, the processes of making and reflectiveness, as well as taking account of the 'community of arbiters'.