Caring for the ethical ideal: Nel Noddings on moral education

Nel Noddings is arguably one of the premier philosophers of moral education in the English‐speaking world today. Although she is outside the mainstream theory, research, and practice traditions of cognitive‐developmentalism (the Kohlberg legacy) and of character education (which is in public ascendancy), her body of work is unrivalled for originality of insight, comprehensiveness and coherence. Whilst Carol Gilligan's In a different voice (1982 Gilligan C (1982) In a different voice: psychological theory and women's development (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press) [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) introduced the ethic of caring into academic and public discourse, it is Noddings ‘who has done most to outline a specific feminist position on moral education’ (McClellan, 1999 McClellan B (1999) Moral education in America: schools and the shaping of character from colonial times to the present (New York, Teachers College Press)  [Google Scholar], p. 104), and whose influence extends to educational practice. This essay explicates Noddings's vision in sufficient depth to make the foregoing claims credible. Thematic focus is given to her attention to the ethical self or ethical ideal. The paper also examines Noddings's perspective on character education and the need to incorporate a morality of evil into any serious educational philosophy or practice. It is less a critical appraisal of that vision and perspective than an invitation to others to more fully engage with Noddings's writings.1 Although Noddings's primary and consistent concern has been moral education, she has also published on intuition in education (1984b), evil from a feminist perspective (1989), mathematics education (Davis, Maher & Noddings, 1990 Davis, R., Maher, C. and Noddings, N. (Eds) (1990) Constructivist views on the teaching and learning of mathematics JRME Monograph. (Reston, VA, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics)  [Google Scholar]), education, narrative, and dialogue (Noddings & Witherell, 1991 Noddings, N. & Witherell, C. (Eds) (1991) Stories lives tell: narrative and dialogue in education (New York, Teachers College Press)  [Google Scholar]), education and religious belief (1993), and caring and social policy (2002a). The present essay focuses on her writings on moral education only.      

The premise and promise of inquiry based mathematics in pre‐service teacher education: a poststructuralist analysis

Many teacher educators have recently implemented inquiry based instructional practices into their programs (Crawford & Deer, 1993 Crawford, K and Deer, C. (1993). Do we practise what we preach? Putting policy into practice in teacher education. South Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 21: 111–121. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; Foss & Kleinsasser, 1996 Foss, D and Kleinsasser, R. (1996). Pre‐service elementary teachers’ views of pedagogical and ­mathematical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(4): 429–442. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]; Klein, 1996 Klein M (1996) The possibilities and limitations of constructivist practice in pre‐service teacher education in mathematics Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia  [Google Scholar], 1997 Klein, M. (1997). Looking again at the ‘supportive’ environment of constructivist pedagogy. ­Journal of Education for Teaching, 23(3): 277–292. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar], 1998 Klein M (1998) New knowledge, new teachers, new times in: C. Kanes, M. Goos & E. Warren (Eds) Teaching mathematics in new times (Brisbane, Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia) 295 302  [Google Scholar], 2001 Klein M (2001) Correcting mathematical and attitudinal deficiencies in pre‐service teacher education in: J. Bobis, B. Perry & M. Mitchelmore (Eds) Numeracy and beyond (Sydney, Australia, MERGA) 338 345  [Google Scholar]; Schuck, 1996 Schuck, S. (1996). Reflections on the dilemmas and tensions in mathematics education courses for student teachers. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 24(1): 75–82. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; Tillema & Knol, 1997 Tillema, M and Knol, W. (1997). Collaborative planning by teacher educators to promote belief changes in their students. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 3(1): 29–46. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). In mathematics education the promise has been that pre‐service teachers’ socialization into new interactive ways of learning will not only lead to the (re)construction of powerful mathematical ideas and relationships, but that it will facilitate the implementation of these inquiry based practices in the classroom. This promise, however, is not often realized (Foss & Kleinsasser, 1996 Foss, D and Kleinsasser, R. (1996). Pre‐service elementary teachers’ views of pedagogical and ­mathematical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(4): 429–442. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]; Tillema & Knol, 1997 Tillema, M and Knol, W. (1997). Collaborative planning by teacher educators to promote belief changes in their students. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 3(1): 29–46. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). One reading of why this may be so, relying on and made visible through a poststructuralist analytic lens, is (a) that perhaps the pre‐service teachers’ ability to act in inquiry‐based, generative ways in the classroom does not necessarily follow from, but is produced or constituted in, teaching/learning interactions in school and teacher education, and (b) it may be that pedagogic practices in teacher education unintentionally and invisibly reproduce old epistemologies and ontologies that support knowledge transmission and teacher authority over student authored engagement and construction of ideas. In this paper the premise of a rational, autonomous agent of change on which so much of current practice is based is challenged, and the possible implications for teacher education discussed.     

The social dynamics of changing practice

In this paper we develop a socio‐dynamic account for the impact of continuing professional development (CPD) on practice. The model we propose for changing practice challenges the essentially individualised explanation of practical learning offered by a number of writers and researchers in the field of CPD such as Joyce and Showers (1988 Joyce B Showers J (1988) Student achievement through staff development (London, Longman)  [Google Scholar]), Eraut (1994 Eraut M (1994) Developing professional knowledge and competence (London, Falmer Press)  [Google Scholar]), and Schön (1983 Schön DA (1983) The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action (London, Temple Books)  [Google Scholar]). It also offers a basis for exploring the micro‐political realities of changing practice and the links between individual and group learning that are largely absent in the socio‐cultural accounts of organisational and situated learning (Senge, 1990 Senge P (1990) The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organisation (New York, Doubleday Currency)  [Google Scholar]; Lave & Wenger, 1991 Lave J Wenger E (1991) Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press) [Crossref] [Google Scholar]; Weick, 1995 Weick K (1995) Sensemaking in organisations (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications)  [Google Scholar]). It proposes a model that allows for tracking the influence of discourses in relation to teacher re‐professionalism from the level of policy to the point of enactment in the school and re‐examines the connections between individual and group learning to arrive at a dynamic framework for understanding changing practice.     

Just one of the boys? A life history case study of a male physical education teacher

Studies of physical education teacher training have already established that hegemonic forms of masculinity are reinforced and reproduced both in the hidden curriculum (Flintoff, 1997 Flintoff A (1997) Gender relations in physical education initial teacher education in: G. Clarke & B. Humberstone (Eds) Researching women and sport Basingstoke Macmillan  [Google Scholar]) and the informal student culture (Skelton, 1993 Skelton, A. (1993). On becoming a male physical education teacher: the informal culture of students and the construction of hegemonic masculinity. Gender and Education, 5(3): 289–303. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). Given this, an important feminist concern is whether male PE teachers whose own masculine identities are anchored in their athletic prowess simply ‘teach’ their young male charges to construct hegemonic forms of masculinity through PE and school sport and/or whether they necessarily marginalize and inferiorize female students. This paper provides a life history case study of a male PE teacher’s role both in reproducing and challenging gendered norms in his capacity as coach of a schoolboy and schoolgirl Australian Rules football team.     

Making a difference: moving beyond the superficial treatment of diversity

As populations in contemporary Western societies grow more diverse, the need for teachers to better understand and work with difference productively becomes increasingly critical (Allard & Santoro, 2006 Allard, A. C. and Santoro, N. 2006. Troubling identities: Teacher education students' constructions of class and ethnicity.. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(1): 115–129. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; D'Cruz, 2007 D'Cruz, H. 2007. Working with ‘Diverse Bodies, Diverse Identities’: An approach to professional education about ‘diversity’.. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 11(1): 35–57.  [Google Scholar]). However, the literature on teacher education shows that historically, teacher education programs have aimed to address diversity with add‐on or piecemeal approaches, with little success (McDonald, 2005 McDonald, M. A. 2005. The integration of social justice in teacher education: Dimensions of prospective teachers' opportunities to learn.. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(5): 418–435.  [Google Scholar]). Moreover, some authors (e.g. Lortie, 1975 Lortie, D. 1975. Schoolteacher: A sociological study, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  [Google Scholar]) have argued that “the predispositions teacher education students bring to teaching are a much more powerful socializing influence than either pre‐service education or later socialization in the workplace” (Johnson, 2002 Johnson, L. 2002. “My eyes have been opened”: White teachers and racial awareness.. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2): 153–167. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar], p. 154). This article explores research and scholarship in this area and argues that we must move beyond the fragmented and superficial treatment of diversity if we are to encourage dispositions in all pre‐service teachers that are more closely aligned with a recognitive view of social justice.     

“I Do This for All of the Reasons America Doesn't Want Me To”: The Organic Pedagogies of Black Male Instructors

ABSTRACT

This article examines the teaching philosophies of Black male teachers of Black male students in manhood development classes in a district-wide program in Oakland, California. Drawing on observations and instructor interview data, we explore the teachers’ histories, teaching philosophies, and the trajectory of their racial-educational understandings. We utilize Gramsci's (1971 Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci: Hoare, Q. & Smith, G. N. (Eds.). (Hoare, Q. & Smith, G. N., trans.) New York, NY: International.  [Google Scholar]) theory of the organic intellectual, Mills’ (1997 Mills, C. W. (1997). The racial contract. Cornell, NY: Cornell University Press. [Google Scholar]) and Leonardo's (2013 Leonardo, Z. (2013). The story of schooling: Critical race theory and the educational racial contract. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 34, 599–610. doi: 10.1080/01596306.2013.822624[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) theories of the subperson and substudent, and Dumas’ (2014 Dumas, M. J. (2014). “Losing an arm”: Schooling as a site of Black suffering. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 17(1), 1–29. doi: 10.1080/13613324.2013.850412 [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) notion of Black suffering to theorize the ways that race comes into play in the teaching of African American male students. We find that racialization and re-humanization are key to instructors’ teaching, and we identify two key aspects of their teaching philosophies: (1) Humanization/Love and (2) Reciprocity.     

Conducting the “Business of Teaching”: Expectations of Non-instructional Tasks of Beginning STEM Teachers

Abstract

Much debate centers on the most necessary elements of teacher preparation programs, with many focusing on practice of core instructional tasks (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kennedy 2016 Kennedy, M. 2016. Parsing the practice of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 67 (1):6–17. doi: 10.1177/0022487115614617.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which may be diluted in alternative preparation programs (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Teachers prepared in alternative programs tend to have greater difficulties with classroom management, instructional planning, and differentiated instruction (Darling-Hammond 2009 Darling-Hammond, L. 2009. Educational opportunity and alternative certification: New evidence and new questions. Policy Brief (1). Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education. [Google Scholar]; Wilson 2011 Wilson, S. 2011. Effective STEM teacher preparation, induction, and professional development. In National Research Council’s Workshop on Successful STEM Education in K–12 Schools. Washington, DC. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/dbasse/bose/dbasse_080128#.UgEMEFPkDDn. [Google Scholar]); however, few studies have examined alternatively prepared STEM teachers’ beliefs and expectations about teaching and learning (Tigchelaar et al. 2010 Tigchelaar, A., N. Brouwer, and J. Vermunt. 2010. Tailor-made: Towards a pedagogy for educating second-career teachers. Educational Research Review 5 (2):164–83.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Good et al. 2006 Good, T., M. McCaslin, H. Tsang, J. Zhang, C. Wiley, A. Rabidue Bozack, and W. Hester. 2006. How well do 1st-year teachers teach: Does type of preparation make a difference? Journal of Teacher Education 57 (4):410–30.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and fewer still have examined their beliefs about non-instructional responsibilities associated with the profession (LeTendre et al. 2001 LeTendre, G.K., D.P. Baker, M. Akiba, B. Goesling, and A. Wiseman. 2001. Teachers' work: Institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the U.S., Germany, and Japan. Educational Researcher 30 (6):3–15. doi: 10.3102/0013189X030006003.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ovando 2001 Ovando, M. N. 2001. Teachers' perceptions of a learner-centered teacher evaluation system. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 15 (3):213–231. [Google Scholar]; Scriven 1994 Scriven, M. 1994. Duties of the teacher. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 8 (2):151–84. doi: 10.1007/BF00972261.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This inquiry examines the expectations of a cohort of STEM practitioners transitioning into STEM teaching positions from an abbreviated alternative certification program; during their first year of teaching and concurrent final internship, the paid interns exhibited heightened emotional responses (i.e. crying, not eating, not sleeping) documented by university supervisors. Researchers utilized Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins 1987 Higgins, E. T. 1987. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 94 (3):319–40.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to provide an understanding of how expectations can produce negative affect, such as anxiety or depression. Findings suggest this cohort of paid interns had expectations about both personal and non-instructional time, planning, school resources, and legal responsibilities incongruent with the realities of the job. Researchers call for further research on STEM practitioners’ beliefs and expectations of non-instructional tasks as they transition from accelerated M.A.T. programs into teaching.     

Informing Design Research: Learning From Teachers' Designs of Social Infrastructure

The design research methodology as it has currently developed centers on the creation of existence proofs, an important first step. What is needed then are the next steps of expanding the methodology to address the design problems of practical implementation prior to the steps involved in scaling up these designs. This article contributes to such an expansion through developing a systematic approach to learning from teachers' enactments of educational models. Design research focused on practical implementations by teachers can create knowledge regarding critical change processes, thus helping to create a theory of trajectories of change, or “implementation paths” (Bielaczyc & Collins, 2006a Bielaczyc, K. and Collins, A. 2006a. Implementation paths: Supporting the trajectory teachers traverse in implementing technology-based learning environments in classroom practice. Journal of Educational Technology, 46(2): 8–14.  [Google Scholar] Collins, Joseph, & Bielaczyc, 2004 Collins, A., Joseph, D. and Bielaczyc, K. 2004. Design research: Theoretical and methodological issues. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13: 15–42. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Here I propose using the Social Infrastructure Framework (Bielaczyc, 2006 Bielaczyc, K. 2006. Designing social infrastructure: Critical issues in creating learning environments with technology. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15: 301–329. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to analyze the design of classroom social structures by developers and teachers in order to better understand their implications for constructing implementation paths. The analytic technique is exemplified through a case study involving a particular team of teachers who worked over the course of several years to adopt a knowledge-building communities approach (Bereiter, 2002 Bereiter, C. 2002. Education and mind in the knowledge age, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Scardamalia, 2002 Scardamalia, M. 2002. “Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge”. In Liberal education in the knowledge society, Edited by: Smith, B. 67–98. Chicago, IL: Open Court.  [Google Scholar]; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991 Scardamalia, M. and Bereiter, C. 1991. Higher levels of agency for children in knowledge building: A challenge for the design of new knowledge media. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1: 37–68. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] 1994). The results are used to discuss implications for the methodology of design research.     

Shaping the field: the role of academic journal editors in the construction of education as a field of study

In a previous British Journal of Sociology of Education article (Nixon & Wellington, 2005 Nixon, J. and Wellington, J. 2005. ‘Good books’: is there a future for academic writing within the educational publishing industry?. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26(1): 91–103. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]) we examined current trends in book publishing and how these have influenced and will influence the construction of the field of educational studies. (The latter study was a follow‐up to an earlier study reported in Nixon [1999 Nixon, J. 1999. Teachers, writers and professionals. Is there anybody out there?. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 20(2): 207–221. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]].) The present article focuses on journals and their editors and, to a lesser extent, the role that the peer review process plays in shaping the field of educational studies. We use (critically rather than deferentially) notions drawn from the work of Bourdieu (1996 Bourdieu, P. 1996. The rules of art: genesis and the structure of the literary field, Cambridge: Polity Press. (Trans. S. Emanuel) [Google Scholar])—the ‘field of power’, defining boundaries, systems of dispositions, right of entry and the ‘illusio’—to consider and conceptualise data from interviews with 12 journal editors. Our own position in writing this article is as academic practitioners involved in reading, peer‐reviewing and editing academic journals within the field of educational studies.

The plea is to recognise that the pen is a mighty sword. We are of course embedded in practices and constrained by them. But these practices owe their dominance in part to the power of a normative language to hold them in place, and it is always open to us to employ the resources of our language to undermine as well as to underpin the practices. We may be freer than we sometimes suppose. (Skinner, 2002 Skinner, Q. 2002. Visions of politics. Volume 1: regarding method, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  [Google Scholar], p. 7)     

Mathematics anxiety,prior experience and confidence to teach mathematics among pre‐service education students

Poor performance in mathematics among students, at a variety of grade levels, has been attributed, in part, to mathematics anxiety (Bulmahn & Young, 1982 Bulmahn, BJ and Young, DM. (1982). On the transmission of mathematics anxiety. Arithmetic Teacher, 30(2): 55–57.  [Google Scholar]; Kelly & Tomhave, 1985 Kelly, WP and Tomhave, WK. (1985). A study of math anxiety/math avoidance in preservice elementary teachers. Arithmetic Teacher, 32(5): 51–53.  [Google Scholar]; Hadfield & McNeil, 1994 Hadfield, OD and McNeil, K. (1994). The relationship between Myers‐Briggs personality type and mathematics anxiety among preservice elementary teachers. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 21(1): 33–46.  [Google Scholar]). Some investigators have related this phenomenon to gender effects (Cooper & Robinson, 1989 Cooper, SE and Robinson, D. (1989). The influence of gender and anxiety on mathematics performance. Journal of College Student Development, 30: 459–461. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) mathematics self‐concept and test anxiety (Bandalos et al., 1995 Bandalos, DL, Yates, K and Thorndike‐Christ, T. (1995). Effects of math self‐concept, perceived self‐efficacy, and attributions for failure and success on test anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(4): 611–623.  [Google Scholar]), or poor test performance (Dew et al., 1984 Dew, KM, Galasi, JP and Galassi, MD. (1984). Math anxiety: relation with situational test anxiety, performance, physiological arousal, and math avoidance behaviour. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 31(4): 580–583.  [Google Scholar]; Hembree, 1990 Hembree, R. (1990). The nature, effects, and relief of mathematics anxiety. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 21(1): 33–46. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Others, most notably Fiore (1999 Fiore, G. (1999). Math‐abused students: are we prepared to teach them?. Mathematics Teacher, 92(5): 403–406.  [Google Scholar]) have attributed mathematics anxiety to what is referred to as math abuse or ‘any negative experience related to an individual’s doing mathematics’ (p. 403), particularly at the hands of adults such as parents and teachers. Limited research, however, was located that examined the relationship between pre‐service teacher education students’ experiences with formal mathematics instruction, and their future professional practice. Specifically, more needs to be known concerning the manner in which past experiences at school may have influenced both attitudes towards the subject as well as confidence in teaching it.     

Assessing Preservice Leaders' Beliefs,Attitudes, and Values Regarding Issues of Diversity,Social Justice,and Equity: A Review of Existing Measures

While convincing research suggests that beliefs are the best predictors of individual behavior and that educators' beliefs influence their perceptions, judgments, and practices, research also states that beliefs are hardy and highly resistant to change (Bandura, 1986 Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.  [Google Scholar]; Dewey, 1933 Dewey, J. 1933. How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process, Boston: D.C. Heath. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Pajares, 1992 Pajares, F. 1992. Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3): 307–332. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Rokeach, 1968 Rokeach, M. 1968. Beliefs, attitudes, and values: A theory of organization and change, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.  [Google Scholar]). Understanding the nature of beliefs, attitudes, and values is essential to understanding future administrators' choices, decisions, and effectiveness regarding issues of diversity, social justice, and equity. This article provides a review of quantitative measures, instruments, inventories, and studies that assess educators' personal and professional beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, and preconceptions. The literature review briefly describes related studies and the discussion section highlights in detail the design, piloting, and results of two fairly recent measures that broadly define diversity, that report validity and reliability data, and that are relatively easy to administer and score.     

“I Went by Twos,He Went by One”: Multiple Interpretations of Inscriptions as Resources for Mathematical Discussions

This article examines a classroom discussion of multiple interpretations of the scales on two distance versus time graphs. The analysis describes how two students and a teacher used multiple meanings for phrases of the form “I went by” and coordinated these meanings with different views of the scales. Students' ambiguous and shifting meanings did not prove to be obstacles to this discussion. Instead, this teacher used student interpretations as resources, built on them, and connected them to canonical mathematical concepts—in particular by highlighting (Goodwin, 1994 Goodwin, C. 1994. Professional vision.. American Anthropologist, 96: 606–633. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) a “unitized” (Lamon, 1994 Lamon, S. 1994. “Ratio and proportion: Cognitive foundations in unitizing and norming.”. In The development of multiplicative reasoning in the learning of mathematics, Edited by: Harel, G. and Confrey, J. 89–120. New York: State University of New York Press..  [Google Scholar], 1996 Lamon, S. 1996. The development of unitizing: Its role in children's partitioning strategies.. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27(2): 170–193. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2007 Lamon, S. 2007. “Rational number and proportional reasoning: Toward a theoretical framework.”. In Second handbook of research in mathematics teaching and learning, Edited by: Lester, F. Jr. 629–667. Charlotte, NC: Information Age..  [Google Scholar]) view of the scales. Research in mathematics education describes teaching that promotes conceptual development as having two central features: One is that teachers and students attend explicitly to concepts, and the other is that students wrestle with important mathematics (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007 Hiebert, J. and Grouws, D. 2007. “The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students' learning.”. In Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning, Edited by: Lester, F. 371–404. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics..  [Google Scholar]). Not only does this classroom discussion provide an example that it is possible to balance these two features, but the analysis provides the details of how instruction can simultaneously provide explicit attention to concepts while allowing students to wrestle with these concepts.     

Secondary school experiences of individuals with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder: perspectives of parents and their children

The purpose of this study was to examine persistence in school among students with Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) from the perspectives of the students themselves and their parents. Tinto’s (1975 Tinto, V. 1975. Dropout from higher education: a theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1): 89–125. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 1997 Tinto, V. 1997. Classrooms as communities: exploring the educational character of student persistence. Journal of Higher Education, 68(6): 599–623. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Student Integration Model (SIM) provided the theoretical framework for this research. This model involves an interplay between (1) background characteristics and attributes affecting the level of goal commitment, (2) level of academic integration, and (3) level of social integration into the institution that determine whether or not a student will graduate. The findings showed limited support for Tinto’s SIM and that parental advocacy is strongly linked with persistence among adolescents with FASD. A new model showing the parents’ role in encouraging persistence through their actions at home and advocacy at the schools is presented.     

Interactive or inactive? a consideration of the nature of interaction in whole class teaching

Recent learning theories and the suggested importance of ‘interactive’ approaches in national initiatives, (NLS, NNS) led to an ESRC‐funded action research project involving the University of Exeter and teachers in three schools—‘Using Talk to Activate Learners’ Knowledge' (TALK). This investigated how ‘interactive’ whole class teaching was and whether teacher‐pupil interactions permitted recoding of information and understanding. The findings corroborate those from Galton (1999 Galton M Hargreaves L Comber C Wall D Pell T (1999a) Inside the primary classroom—20 years on (London, Routledge) [Crossref] [Google Scholar]a, 1999 Galton, M, Hargreaves, L, Comber, C, Wall, D and Pell, T. (1999b). Changes in patterns of teacher interaction in primary classrooms: 1976–1996. British Educational Research Journal, 25(1): 23–37. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]b), Mroz (2000 Mroz, M, Smith, F and Hardman, F. (2000). The discourse of the Literacy Hour. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(3): 379–390. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) and English (2002 English, E, Hargreaves, L and Hislam, J. (2002). Pedagogical dilemmas in the National Literacy Strategy: primary teachers' perceptions, reflections and classroom behaviour. Cambridge Journal of Education, 32(1): 9–26. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]): that teacher‐led questioning and explanation still dominate, as do teachers' objectives. Interaction as participation was differentially experienced by higher and lower abilities, boys and girls, with few opportunities for pupil initiation or extended response. The study, however, provides a model for more fully analysing the varying forms and functions of teachers' questions and statements which may lead to a greater clarity in recognising ways to provide more effective discourse for learning.     

The act of collective worship: pupils’ perspectives

Data gathered as part of a recent research project into the provision of collective worship in schools in England and Wales reveals the existence of a marked variation in approach and provision between schools in the primary and secondary sectors. Consequently, the point of transfer often becomes a watershed in pupils’ experience. This sudden change, which is most apparent in community schools, is accompanied by a slower but pre-existing transition in attitudes which is common to pupils in all types of institution. Using material gathered from interviews with young people, this article examines the issue of participation in school worship from the pupils’ perspective and analyses the reasons they give for their opposition to provision. It then compares these attitudes with those of a previous generation, as demonstrated in the work of Loukes (1961 Loukes H (1961) Teenage Religion (London, SCM)  [Google Scholar]) and Goldman (1964 Goldman R (1964) Religious Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul)  [Google Scholar], 1965 Goldman R (1965) Readiness for Religion (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul)  [Google Scholar]) in order to explore the underlying changes which influence students’ thinking. It concludes with a consideration of the implications of these findings for practice and policy.     

Comparison of Direct Instruction and Discrete Trial Teaching on the Curriculum-based Assessment of Language Performance of Students with Autism

There is limited research demonstrating direct instruction (DI) as an effective language intervention for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and developmental disabilities (DD). Existing research has shown that instruction using partial implementation of DI programs resulted in student learning (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and instruction using whole lessons resulted in positive instructional effects for students with ASD and DD (Ganz, 2007 Ganz, M. L. (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 343&349.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, it is not known whether DI is more effective than other language interventions. The purpose of this study was to compare DI to an established intervention, discrete trial teaching. Thirteen students with ASD or participated in the study and data were collected using curriculum-based assessment. An independent samples t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in student performance for the group who received DI. Results and their implications will be discussed.     

‘Revisiting’ the South Pacific approaches to learning: a confirmatory factor analysis study

There has been substantial research evidence concerning the learning approaches of students in Western and non‐Western contexts. Nonetheless, it has been a decade since research in the South Pacific was conducted on the learning approaches of tertiary students. The present research examined the learning approaches of Fijian and other Pacific Islands students enrolling in a professional‐based education course at the University of the South Pacific. Biggs’ (1987 Biggs, J. 1987. Student approaches to learning and studying, Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.  [Google Scholar]) Study Process Questionnaire was revised to suit the social and cultural contexts before it was distributed among 159 undergraduate students. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis did not support the theoretical framework of a three‐factor model (Biggs, 1987 Biggs, J. 1987. Student approaches to learning and studying, Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.  [Google Scholar]) and, instead, indicated the existence of a two first‐factor model, emphasising two major types of learning approach – reproducing and meaning (Richardson, 1994 Richardson, J.T.E. 1994. Cultural specificity of approaches to studying in higher education. Higher Education, 27: 449–468. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]). The study’s findings suggest that educators should ensure that assessment and other teaching learning components are aligned constructively to promote the appropriate approach of learning.     

Hierarchy and Happiness: The Influence of Emotion on Administrative Job Satisfaction

Administrative job satisfaction in higher education is influenced by intrinsic and interpersonal factors (Volkwein & Zhou, 2002 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2002 , June ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Paper presented at the Annual Forum for the Association for Institutional Research , Toronto , Ontario , Canada . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service Number ED473108)  [Google Scholar], 2003 Volkwein , J. F. & Zhou , Y. ( 2003 ). Testing a model of administrative job satisfaction . Research in Higher Education , 44 ( 2 ), 149 – 171 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Pioneers of the “affect as information” hypothesis of emotion postulate that emotions provide value-laden information regarding whether goals, standards, and attitudes are impacted positively or negatively by events, agents, or objects (Clore, 1992 Clore , G. ( 1992 ). Cognitive phenomenology: Feelings and the construction of judgment . In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 133 – 163 ). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . [Google Scholar], 1994 Clore , G. ( 1994 ). Why emotions require cognition . In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions . New York : Oxford University Press . [Google Scholar]; Clore & Ortony, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988 Ortony , A. , Clore , G. , & Collins , A. ( 1988 ). The cognitive structure of emotions . New York : Cambridge University Press .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Schwarz & Clore, 1988 Clore , G. & Ortony , A. ( 1988 ). The semantics of the affective lexicon . In V. Hamilton & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation NATO ASI series D: Behavioural and social sciences ( Vol. 44 , pp. 367 – 397 ). Dordrecht , Germany : Kluwer .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This study explored the relationship between emotion and job satisfaction among community college administrators. Elevated satisfaction scores were associated with positive emotional temperaments and elevated emotional intelligence. Optimistic administrators in good moods were more satisfied than pessimistic administrators in bad moods.     

A Theory-Driven Model of Community College Student Engagement

This mixed-methods study develops, operationalizes, and tests a new conceptual model of community college student engagement. Themes emerging from participant observations and semistructured interviews with 30 adult students enrolled at a Large Best Practices Community College (LBPCC) over the 2005–2006 academic year are used to guide selection of Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 1985 ). Intrinsic motivation and self-direction behavior . New York : Plenum .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 2000 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2000 ). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 25 , 54 – 67 .[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2002 Deci , E. L. & Ryan , R. M. ( 2002 ). Handbook of self-determination research . Rochester , NY : University of Rochester . [Google Scholar]) to frame the new conceptual model. Structural equation modeling techniques confirm that variables and relationships proposed by the new model represent a good fit with data from over 1,000 students surveyed in the Community College Survey of Student Engagement. Findings from this study suggest that community college engagement and related outcomes can be fostered by tuning campus policies, practices, and climates to promote students' senses of belonging, competence, and autonomy.     

Learning through boundary‐crossing: further education lecturers learning in both the university and workplace

This paper reports on a research project that sought to gain a deeper understanding of the contribution that universities make to the professional learning of teachers. The particular case studied was a group of learners who were engaged in an in‐service teacher education course for further education (FE) whilst also working as lecturers in FE colleges in Scotland. The paper develops the narrative of learning across boundaries (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) drawing on the work of Engeström (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). The claim made is that the learning that takes place across the boundary of the workplace and university has the possibility of helping learners to resolve issues that the workplace alone does not provide them with the resources to resolve.

Cet article fait un compte‐rendu sur un projet de recherche dont le but était d'approfondir les connaissances sur la contribution des universités à la formation professionelle des professeurs. Le cas particulier qu'on a étudié était un groupe d'apprenants qui ont suivi un cours de formation d'enseignement professionnelle en travaillent commme professeurs dans des centres d'enseignement professionnel. L'article se déroule la narration d'apprentissage à travers les frontières (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) et d'après les recherches d'Engstrom (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). On prétend que la connaissance qu'on a produit à travers des frontières du lieu de travail et de l'université pourrait aider les étudiants à résoudre des problèmes qu'ils ne pourraient pas résoudre en travaillant seulement.

Este trabajo presenta un proyecto de investigación que ha buscado una comprensión más detallada sobre la contribución aportada por la universidad al aprendizaje profesional del profesorado. El trabajo ha estudiado un grupo de alumnos que participaron en un curso avanzado de educación mientras trabajaban como profesores en institutos de enseñanza en Escocia. El estudio desarrolla la temática del aprendizaje a través de límites (Saunders 2006 Saunders, M. 2006. From ‘organisms’ to ‘boundaries’: The uneven development of theory narratives in education, learning and work connections.. Journal of Education and Work, 19: 1–27. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]) inspirándose en el trabajo de Engeström (1987 Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity‐theoretical approach to developmental research, Helsinki: Orienta‐Konsultit. [Crossref] [Google Scholar], 2001 Engeström, Y. 2001. Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation.. Journal of Education and Work, 14: 133–56. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]). La reivindicación hecha es que el aprendizaje que tiene lugar a través del límite del lugar de trabajo y la universidad tiene la posibilidad de ayudar a los alumnos en resolver asuntos en que el lugar de trabajo por si solo no puede proveerles con los recursos para su resolución.

Dieser Artikel berichtet die Resultate eines Forschungsprojektes, dass zu verstehen versuchte, was Universitäten zum professionellen Lernen von Lehrern beitragen. Ein Gruppe von Studenten wurder untersucht, die in Schottland an Berufsschulen unterrichteten und gleichzeitig an einem Weiterbildungskurs fuer Lehrkräfte an der Universität teilnahmen. Der Artikel ist auf der Arbeit von Engström basiert und konzentriert sich auf Lernen, das über Grenzen hinweg stattfindet (Saunders) (in unserem Fall Arbeitsplatz und Universität). Wir behaupten, dass das solches Lernen grössere Moeglichkeiten bietet, Probleme zu lösen, als Lernen, welches nur am Arbeitsplatz stattfindet.